Travels in North America, From Modern Writers

The notion which these people entertain of the creation of the world is a very singular one. They believe that the globe was originally one vast ocean, inhabited by no living creature, except an immense bird, whose eyes were of fire, whose glances were lightning, and the clapping of whose wings was thunder. On the descent of this bird to the ocean, and at the instant of touching it, they say that the earth arose, and remained on the surface of the waters. This omnipotent bird then called forth all the variety of animals from the earth, except the Chepewyans, who were produced from a dog; and to this circumstance they attribute their aversion to dog's-flesh. The tradition proceeds to relate, that the great bird, having finished his work, made an arrow, which was to be preserved with great care, and to remain untouched; but that the Chepewyans were so devoid of understanding, as to carry it away; and this sacrilege so enraged the bird, that he has never since appeared. They believe also, that, in ancient times, their ancestors lived till their feet were worn out with walking, and their throats with eating; and they describe a deluge, in which the waters spread over the whole earth, except the highest mountains, on the tops of which the Chepewyans preserved themselves.

They are superstitious in an extreme; and almost every action of their lives, however trivial, is more or less influenced by some superstitious notion. They believe in a good and evil spirit; and in a future state of rewards and punishments. They assert that the souls of persons deceased pass into another world, where they arrive at a large river, on which they embark, in a stone canoe, and that a gentle current bears them on to an extensive lake, in the centre of which is a beautiful island. Within view of this island they receive that judgment for their conduct during life, which terminates their state. If their good actions predominate, they are landed upon the island, where there is to be no end of their happiness. But if their bad actions prevail, the stone canoe sinks, and leaves them up to their chins in the water, to behold and regret the reward which is enjoyed by the good; and eternally to struggle, but with unavailing endeavours, to reach the bliss from which they are for ever excluded.

Twenty-fourth Day's Instruction.
NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORY CONCLUDED

Fort Chepewyan was, for eight years, the head quarters of Mr. (now Sir Alexander) Mackenzie, who held an official situation under the North-west Company; and who, from this place, made two important and laborious excursions, one northward, to the Frozen Sea; and the other westward, to the Pacific Ocean.

Narrative of a Voyage from Fort Chepewyan, along the Rivers to the north Frozen Ocean.From Voyages through the Continent of North America, by Alexander Mackenzie

In the first of his excursions, Mr Mackenzie embarked at Fort Chepewyan, about nine o'clock in the morning of the 3d of June, 1789. His vessel was a canoe formed of birch-bark, and his crew consisted of one German and four Canadians, two of whom were attended by their wives. He was also accompanied, in a small canoe, by an Indian chief and his two wives. The men were engaged to serve in the twofold capacity of interpreters and hunters.

Mr. Mackenzie had also with him a canoe which he had equipped for the purpose of trade, and had given in charge to M. Le Roux, one of the Company's clerks. In this canoe was shipped part of his provision, the clothing necessary on the voyage, a requisite assortment of articles of merchandise as presents, to ensure them a friendly reception among the Indians; and such arms and ammunition as were considered necessary for defence, as well as for the use of the hunters.

Crossing the south-western extremity of the Lake of the Hills, they entered the Slave river, and steered, along that river, in a northerly direction. On the ensuing day they arrived at the foot of a succession of rapids; and, in the course of twelve miles, were obliged five times to unload the canoes, and carry the luggage considerable distances overland. One of the Indian canoes was borne, by the fury of the current, down the last of the cataracts, and was dashed to pieces. The hunters here killed seven geese, four ducks, and a beaver. The progress of the boats was much impeded by ice.

The banks of the river, both above and below the rapids, were covered with wood. This was more particularly the case on the western side, where the land was low, and had a black and rich soil. The eastern banks were somewhat elevated; and the soil was a yellow clay, mixed with gravel. At a little distance from the banks were extensive plains, frequented by numerous herds of buffaloes; and the woods, adjacent to the river, were inhabited by elks and rein-deer. The habitations of beavers were seen in all the small lakes and rivers; and the swamps adjacent to the Slave-river, were sometimes covered with wild-fowl.

In the morning of the 9th the voyagers arrived at the Great Slave Lake. Here they experienced a most uncomfortable change in the weather, which became extremely cold. The lake was still frozen; and they were obliged to delay their progress for several days, until they could effect a passage across it. In the mean while they occupied themselves in fishing and hunting, for the purpose of adding to their stock of provisions. They had more or less rain almost every day.

On the 20th the ice had somewhat given way, and they recommenced their voyage, in a north-westerly direction. A few days after this, they landed on the main land, at three lodges of Red-knife Indians, so called from the copper knives which they use. M. le Roux purchased, of these Indians, some packs of beaver and marten-skins; and Mr. Mackenzie had several consultations with them concerning the country he was about to traverse; but he could obtain from them no information that was important to the objects of his expedition. He, however, engaged one of them, as a guide, in navigating the bays of the lake.

The musquitoes were now so troublesome as to occasion the voyagers much inconvenience. After having, with considerable difficulty, navigated the northern side of the lake, they entered the mouth of a river, which lay in a westerly direction. On the 2d of July, they perceived, at a distance before them, a high mountain, or rather a cluster of mountains, which stretched southward, as far as the view could reach, and had their tops lost in the clouds. The declivities of these mountains were covered with wood; and they were sprinkled with glistening patches of snow, which, at first, Mr. Mackenzie mistook for white stones.

During their progress the voyagers saw several Indian encampments. The current, in some places, was so rapid as to produce a hissing noise, somewhat like the boiling of a kettle. Though it was now the month of July, the weather was extremely cold. The sun set at seven minutes before ten, and rose at seven minutes before two in the morning.

Having passed several islands, and, not long afterwards having seen, on the northern shore, the smoke of several fires, the voyagers made every exertion to approach the spot; and, as they drew near, they observed a party of Indians, running about in great apparent confusion. Some of them were endeavouring to escape into the woods, and others were hurrying to their canoes. The hunters landed, and, in the Chepewyan language, addressed the few who had not escaped; but, so great was their terror, that they did not appear to understand it. When, however, they found it was impossible to conceal themselves, they made signs to the strangers to keep at a distance. With these the latter complied, and not only unloaded their canoe, but pitched their tents, before the Indians made any attempt to approach them. After considerable difficulty they became reconciled; and, as soon as their fears were dissipated, they called their fugitive companions from the woods.

The inhabitants of this place were five families of Slave and Dog-rib Indians. They were unacquainted with the use of tobacco and ardent spirits; but were delighted to receive, as presents, knives, beads, awls, rings, fire-steels, flints, and hatchets; and, after a little while, they became so familiar, that it was difficult to keep them out of the tents.

These Indians seemed totally ignorant respecting the distant parts of the river, for they believed its course to be so long that it would occupy the voyagers several years to reach the sea. They also described the intervening regions to be inhabited by monsters of the most horrid shapes and destructive powers. One of them, however, by the bribe of a small kettle, an axe, a knife; and some other articles, was induced to accompany the voyagers as a guide.

They amused the strangers by dancing and singing; but neither the dance nor the song had much variety. The men and women arranged themselves promiscuously in a ring. The former had each a bone-dagger, or a piece of stick, between the fingers of his right hand, which he kept extended above his head, in continual motion; while he held his left in an horizontal direction. They leaped about, and threw themselves into various antic postures, to the measure of their music, bringing their heels close together at every pause. Sometimes the men howled, like wild beasts; and he who continued to howl the longest, appeared to be considered the best performer. The women suffered their arms to hang down, as if they were without the power of motion.

These people are of middle stature, thin, ugly, and ill made, particularly about the legs. Many of them appeared to be in a very unhealthy state, owing, probably, to their filthiness. As far as could be discerned, through the grease and dirt that covered them, they were of fairer complexion than the generality of Indians. The women have two double lines of black or blue colour upon each cheek, from the ear to the nose; and the gristle of the nose is perforated, so as to admit a goose-quill, or a small piece of wood to be passed through it. The clothing of these Indians is made of the dressed skins of the rein or moose-deer. Some of them, says Mr. Mackenzie, were decorated with a neat embroidery of porcupine-quills and hair, coloured red, black, yellow, and white; and they had bracelets for their wrists and arms, made of wood, horn, or bone. Round their head they had a kind of band, embroidered with porcupine quills, and ornamented with the claws of bears and wild-fowl.

Their huts or lodges are very simple. A few poles, supported by forks, and forming a semicircle, with some branches or pieces of bark as a covering, constitute the whole of the architecture. Two of these huts are constructed facing each other, and a fire is made between them. Among the furniture are dishes of wood, bark, or horn; and vessels in which they cook their food, narrow at the top, and wide at the bottom. The latter are formed of roots of the spruce fir-tree, so closely interwoven as to hold water. This people have also small leather bags, to hold their embroidered work, their lines, and fishing-nets. They twist the fibres of willow-bark, and the sinews of rein-deer, into fishing-lines; and they make fishing-hooks of horn, wood, or bone. Their weapons for hunting are bows and arrows, spears, daggers, and clubs. They kindle fire, by striking together a piece of white or yellow pyrites and a flint-stone, over a piece of touchwood.

Their canoes are small, pointed at both ends, flat-bottomed, and covered in the fore part. They are made of the bark of the birch-tree, and of fir-wood; but are so light, that the man whom one of these vessels bears on the water, is able to carry it overland, without any difficulty.

On the 9th of July the voyagers had an interview with a party of Indians, who were more pleasing, both in appearance and manners, than any they had hitherto seen. They were stout, healthy, and clean in their persons; and their utensils and weapons resembled those of the Slave and Dog-rib Indians. They obtained iron, in small pieces, from the Esquimaux. Their garments were bordered with a kind of fringe; and their shirts tapered to a point, from the belt downward. One of the men whom Mr. Mackenzie saw, was clad in a shirt made of the skins of musk-rats. These Indians tie their hair in a very singular manner. That which grows on the temples, or on the fore part of the head, is formed into two queues, which hang down before the ears: and that on the crown of the head, is fashioned, in the same manner, towards the back of the neck, and is tied, with the rest of the hair, at some distance from the head. The women, and indeed some of the men, suffer their hair to hang loose on their shoulders.

Mr. Mackenzie prevailed with one of these Indians to accompany him on his voyage; and this man, who was one of the most intelligent Indians he had seen, stated that it would be requisite to sleep ten nights before they could reach the sea; and that, after three nights, the voyagers would reach a settlement of Esquimaux, with whom his nation had formerly made war.

He accompanied Mr. Mackenzie in a canoe; and two of his companions followed in two other canoes. The latter sung their native songs; and this new guide was so much enlivened by these, that the antics he performed, in keeping time to the singing, excited continual alarm lest he should overset his boat. He afterwards went on board Mr. Mackenzie's canoe, where he began to perform an Esquimaux dance, to the no small alarm of the voyagers.

Lower down the river, Mr. Mackenzie had an interview with a party of Indians called Quarrellers. They consisted of about forty men, women, and children, and, at first, seemed inclined to offer resistance; but they were soon pacified by presents, of which blue beads were the most acceptable articles.

These Indians represented the distance, over land, to the northern sea, as not very great; and the distance to the sea, westward, (the Pacific Ocean,) to be still shorter.

The river here flowed between high rocks. Indeed, in this part of the country, the banks were, in general, lofty. In some places they were nearly naked, and in others thickly clad with small trees, particularly fir-trees and birch. The tops of the mountains, towards the north, were covered with snow. The channels of the river were so various, that the voyagers were at a loss which to take. They, however, directed their course chiefly towards the north-west.

In this part of the voyage, Mr. Mackenzie was induced to sit up all night, for the purpose of observing the sun: which, at half-past twelve o'clock, was considerably above the horizon.

At four in the morning he landed at three Indian huts. These were of an oval form, each about fifteen feet long, and ten feet wide; and in the middle, only, they were high enough for a person to stand upright. In one part of each the ground was strewed with willow branches, probably as a bed for the family. The door or entrance was about two feet and a half high, and had a covered way or porch, five feet in length; so that it was necessary to creep on all fours, in order to get into or out of these curious habitations. In the top of each hut there was a hole, about eighteen inches square, which served the threefold purpose of a window, a chimney, and occasionally a door. These edifices were formed of wood, covered with branches and grass. On each side of the huts were a few square holes in the ground, probably contrived for the preservation of the winter stock of provisions.

On the 12th of July, the voyagers had reached what they imagined to be an immense lake; and, shortly after they had retired to rest, at night, the man on watch called them up, to remove the baggage, on account of the sudden rising of the water. Some fish were afterwards caught, about the size of a herring, and resembling a species of fish which abounds in Hudson's Bay. On the ensuing day, Mr. Mackenzie ascended an adjacent hill, and saw much ice; and, towards the north-west, two small islands in the ice. On the 14th, many animals were seen in the water, which, at first, were supposed to be pieces of floating-ice, but which were afterwards ascertained to be whales. Hence it became evident that this apparent lake was a part of the Northern Ocean. Mr. Mackenzie sailed upon it, to some distance from the shore, and landed at the eastern extremity of an island, which he called Whale Island, and which was about seven leagues in length, but not more than a mile broad. The ebbing and flowing of the tide were here observed. He subsequently landed on another island, where an Indian burying-place was observed. The latitude of the shore of this northern ocean, was ascertained to be 69 degrees 14 minutes, north; and the longitude 135 degrees, west.

Narrative of the Return of Mr. Mackenzie from the Frozen Ocean to Fort Chepewyan

This gentlemen embarked, on his return, at half-past one o'clock, of the 21st of July, the weather being extremely cold and unpleasant. At ten, the canoes re-entered the river; but the opposing current was so strong, that the men were obliged, for a considerable distance, to tow them along. The land on both sides was elevated, and almost perpendicular. Much rain fell.

Mr. Mackenzie subsequently encamped near an Indian village, the inhabitants of which were at first considerably alarmed. They afterwards, however, became familiar. Some of them, having kindled a fire, laid themselves round it, to sleep; and, notwithstanding the excessive coldness of the climate, they had neither skins nor garments to cover them.

The people of this nation are continually at variance with the Esquimaux, who are said to take every opportunity of attacking them, when not in a state to defend themselves. From their account it appeared that a strong party of Esquimaux occasionally ascended the river, in large canoes, to search for flint-stones, which they used as points for their spears and arrows. These Esquimaux were said to wear their hair short; and to have a hole perforated on each side of their mouth, in a line with the under lip, and to place beads in the holes, by way of ornament. Their weapons were bows, arrows, and spears; but they also used slings, from which they threw stones with great dexterity.

The weather was now fine; and Mr. Mackenzie and his men renewed their voyage on the 27th of July. At seven o'clock they once more reached the rapids. Here they found three families of Indians, from whom they obtained some information respecting the adjacent country, and particularly respecting a river which was stated to run on the opposite side of the mountains, in a westerly direction; and which, from the description given of it, Mr. Mackenzie conjectured to be that called Cook's River.

At a subsequent interview, with another party of Indians, a misunderstanding took place, in which the Indians seized one of Mr. Mackenzie's boats, and dragged it on shore. Peace, however, being restored, Mr. Mackenzie endeavoured to obtain some further intelligence concerning the river to the westward. His enquiries, however, were to little purpose. The account given by these Indians was very vague; and their description of the inhabitants of the country adjacent to it, was extremely absurd. These, it was stated, were of gigantic stature, and furnished with wings; which, however, they never employed in flying: that they fed on large birds, which they killed with the greatest ease; though common men would be the certain victims of the voracity of such birds. The Indians also described the people who inhabited the mouth of the river, as possessing the extraordinary power of killing with their eyes; and as each being able to devour a large beaver at a single meal. They added that canoes, or vessels of immense size, visited that place. They did not, however, pretend to relate these particulars from their own observation, but from the report of other Indians; for they had themselves never ventured beyond the first range of mountains, from their own dwellings. It, however, appeared to Mr. Mackenzie that, either the Indians knew more of this country than they chose to communicate, or that his interpreter, who had long been tired of the voyage, gave him purposely a wrong account, in order that he might not be induced to extend his excursions.

As soon as the conference was ended, the Indians began to dance; and, in this pastime, old and young, male and female, continued their exertions, till their strength was exhausted. Their actions were accompanied by various noises, in imitation of the rein-deer, the bear, and the wolf.

When the dancing was ended, Mr. Mackenzie assumed an angry tone, expressed his suspicions that information had been purposely withheld from him; and concluded with a threat, that if they did not give him a more satisfactory account, he would compel one of them to accompany him, for the purpose of pointing out the road to the other river. No sooner did they hear this declaration, than they all, in a moment, became sick; and answered, in a faint tone, that they knew no more than what they had already communicated. Finding it useless to persevere in his enquiries, he ceased them; and having purchased a few beaver-skins, and obtained a plentiful supply of food, he continued his voyage.

On the 1st of August, the weather was clear and cold. This was the first night, for many weeks, that the stars had been visible. Nine days afterwards, they arrived in the vicinity of a range of lofty mountains. Accompanied by a young Indian, Mr. Mackenzie landed, for the purpose of ascending one of them. They passed through a wood, chiefly of spruce-firs, so thick that it was with difficulty they could penetrate it. After they had walked more than an hour, the underwood decreased; and was succeeded by birch and poplar trees, the largest and tallest that Mr. Mackenzie had ever seen. The mountains, which had been concealed, by the woods, from their view, were again visible, but, apparently, at as great a distance as when they were first seen from the river. This was a very mortifying circumstance, for Mr. Mackenzie and his companion had been walking nearly three hours. The Indian expressed great anxiety to return; for his shoes and leggings had been torn to pieces, and he was alarmed at the idea of having to proceed all night, through this trackless country. Mr. Mackenzie was, however, determined to proceed, and to return the next day. As they approached the mountains, the ground became marshy; and they waded, in water and grass, up to their knees, till they came within a mile of them; when, suddenly, Mr. Mackenzie sank, up to his armpits, in mud and water. Having, with considerable difficulty, extricated himself, he found it impossible to proceed any further. To cross this unexpected morass was impracticable; and it extended so far, both to the right and left, that he could not attempt to make the circuit of either extremity. He therefore determined to return; and, about midnight, he again reached the river, excessively fatigued with his fruitless expedition.

In the afternoon of the 13th, the voyagers continued their route, and with very favourable weather. They passed several places, where fires had recently been made; and beyond these, they observed a party of Indians, drawing their canoes on the beach, and endeavouring to escape into the woods. These had been so much terrified, by the appearance of the strangers, and the report of their guns, in shooting wild-geese, that they left, on the beach, several weapons and articles of dress. Mr. Mackenzie directed his men to go into the woods, in search of them, but in vain; for they had fled too rapidly to be overtaken.

The voyagers had, for some time, subsisted chiefly on fish, which they had caught in their nets, and on deer and other game, which the hunters had killed.

On Saturday, the 12th of September, at three o'clock in the afternoon, they again arrived at Fort Chepewyan; and thus concluded an arduous voyage, which, in the whole, had occupied the space of one hundred and two days.

The Western Coast of America, from California to Behring's Strait

On the western coast of North America, and lying between the twenty-second and thirty-second degrees of latitude, is a very singular promontory, near seven hundred miles in length, called California. It is at present subject to Spain; and is separated from New Mexico, by the Gulf of California, an arm of the sea, which is navigable by vessels of the largest size. The general surface of the country is barren, rugged, overrun with hills, rocks, and sand-banks, and unfit for agriculture. But, in a few places, where the Spanish missionaries have established settlements, the lands are fertile, and singularly productive of maize, barley, and peas. The plains, in the interior, are noted for the production of rock-salt.

The Indians of California are very expert in the use of the bow, and subsist chiefly by hunting and fishing. Their skin is dark, and they paint their bodies, by way of ornament: they also pierce their ears, and wear in them trinkets of various kinds. The wealthiest of them wear cloaks made of sea-otter skins, which cover the loins, and reach below their middle. Others, however, have only a piece of cloth round their waist, and a little cloak, formed of rabbit-skin, which covers their shoulders, and is tied beneath the chin. The huts of these Indians are the most miserable that can be imagined. Their form is circular; and about six feet wide and four feet high. In the construction of them, stakes, eight or ten feet long, are driven into the ground, and are brought together so as to form an arch at the top; and trusses of straw, badly arranged upon these stakes, defend the inhabitants from the wind and rain.

Near the Spanish settlement of Monterey, in north latitude 30 degrees 35 minutes, M. de la Perouse, the French navigator, states that the soil is tolerably fertile and productive; and the climate is mild, though foggy. This part of California produces, in abundance, olives, figs, pomegranates, grapes, and peaches; the trees of which have all been planted by the missionaries. Beyond Monterey, the interior of the country is covered with immense forests of pines and other trees.

North of California is New Albion, a country so called by Sir Francis Drake, who originally discovered it in the year 1578. It was visited about two hundred years afterwards, by Captain Cook. The country is mountainous; and, during the winter and spring, the mountains are covered with snow. The valleys and the grounds along the sea-coast, are clad with trees, and appear like a vast forest.

Captain Cook sailed northward along the coast of New Albion, and anchored his vessels in an inlet called Nootka Sound. The inhabitants of the adjacent country approached his ships, and offered for sale the skins of various animals; garments of different kinds, some of fur, and others formed of the bark of trees. But, of all the articles brought to market, the most extraordinary, were human skulls, and hands not quite stripped of their flesh, some of which had evident marks of having been upon the fire. The articles which the natives took, in exchange for their commodities, were knives, chisels, pieces of iron and tin, nails, looking-glasses, buttons, or any kind of metal. Though the commerce was, in general, carried on with mutual honesty, there were some among these people who were much inclined to theft. And they were extremely dangerous thieves; for, possessing sharp iron instruments, they could cut a hook from a tackle, or any other piece of iron from a rope, the moment that the backs of the English were turned; and the dexterity with which they conducted their operations of this nature, frequently eluded the most cautious vigilance. In the progress of the commerce, they would deal for nothing but metal; and, at length, brass was so eagerly sought for, in preference to iron, that, before the navigators quitted the place, scarcely a bit of brass was left in the ships, except what belonged to the different instruments. Whole suits of clothes were stripped of every button; bureaus were deprived of their furniture; copper-kettles, tin-canisters, candlesticks, and whatever of the like kind could be found, all were seized and carried off.

On Captain Cook's first arrival in this inlet, he had honoured it with the name of King George's Sound; but as it was called Nootka, by the natives, the latter appellation has since been generally adopted. The climate appeared to be much milder than that on the east coast of America, in the same parallel of latitude. With regard to trees, those of which the woods are chiefly composed, are the Canadian pine and white cypress; of the land animals, the most common were bears, deer, foxes, and wolves. The sea animals, which were seen off the coast, were whales, porpoises, seals, and sea-otters. Birds, in general, were not only rare as to the different species, but few in number.

With respect to the inhabitants, their persons are generally under the common stature; but they are usually full or plump, though without being muscular. From their bringing to sale human skulls and bones, it may be inferred that they treat their enemies with a degree of brutal cruelty. To the navigators, however, they appeared to be a docile, courteous, and good-natured people. The chief employments of the men, were those of fishing, and of killing land or sea animals for the sustenance of themselves and their families; while the women were occupied in manufacturing flaxen or woollen garments, and in other domestic offices.

North of Nootka Sound is Port St. François, which was visited by M. de la Perouse. There is, at this place, a deep bay which affords a safe anchorage. During three or four months of the year, vegetation near Port St. François is vigorous. In the interior of the country are forests of stately trees; and mountains of granite rise from the sea, and to such an elevation that their summits are capped with snow. Some of the highest mountains were computed by M. de la Perouse, to be ten thousand feet in perpendicular height.