The Puzzle of Christianity

Initially the Christian message was spread by word of mouth and small groups of believers started to meet in each other’s houses. However, there was little in the way of central organisation and each community was autonomous. The New Testament was not in existence at this stage and verbal reports of Jesus’ message, death and resurrection were all that was available. It was inevitable that diversity of beliefs and practices should emerge.

No other single character was more influential in the early years of Christianity than St Paul. He was originally a devout Jew and, before his conversion, was a bitter opponent of Christianity who was authorised by the Jewish leaders to use all means to stamp out what was seen as a new and heretical sect. After his conversion, he became fearless in preaching. Although he had not known Jesus personally, he considered that he was an apostle just as much as the apostles commissioned by Jesus during His life, as he felt that he had had a personal commission from Jesus. Most of Paul’s preaching was to non-Jews and when the leaders of the Christian community in Jerusalem heard of this, they opposed what he was doing. The issue was one that was bound to arise; Jesus was a Jew, all his initial followers were Jews, and so now the question was whether all Christians had to be subject to the Jewish law (including strict dietary laws as well as the circumcision of males). The apostles in Jerusalem, under Peter, initially felt that this was necessary but Paul did not. When, therefore, the Jerusalem leaders challenged Paul about this, he travelled to Jerusalem to resolve the issue. We have a record of the meeting in the Acts of the Apostles (15:1–21). Some of the leaders were committed to opposing Paul and insisting that Christians had first to become Jews, but Peter challenged this as a result of a vision he had received from God. In the vision, Peter saw an immense tray of food descending from heaven including various foods forbidden to a pious Jew. God told Peter to eat, but Peter refused, saying that he would not eat food regarded by Jews as unclean. God replied, rebuking Peter and saying that he should not call unclean what God had cleansed (Acts 10:9–16). Peter, therefore, became convinced that Paul was right, and so Paul was allowed to continue to preach to the Gentiles, and there was no requirement for the early Christians to become Jews. This was a crucial turning point since, if this had not happened, Christianity might have remained an obscure Jewish sect rather than spreading across the world.

Paul was responsible more than anyone else for the spread of Christianity. He travelled through much of the known world in an epic series of journeys, almost all on foot or by boat, and wherever he went he left communities of new Christians. However, once Paul had left these communities, they were directionless and things began to go wrong. Different opinions began to take hold about doctrine and the way the Christian life should be lived. For instance, in one community, instead of the new Christians commemorating the Last Supper as a solemn meal to remember Jesus, it became a huge feast with the wealthy showing off their wealth (1 Corinthians 11:17–34). Paul had to write firm letters setting these new Christian communities straight and pointing out their errors. He was also constantly calling the young Christian churches back to being faithful to the fundamental Christian message:

Now, brothers and sisters, I want to remind you of the gospel I preached to you, which you received and on which you have taken your stand.

(1 Corinthians 15:1)

I am astonished that you are so quickly deserting the one who called you to live in the grace of Christ and are turning to a different gospel – which is really no gospel at all. Evidently some people are throwing you into confusion and are trying to pervert the gospel of Christ.

(Galatians 1:6–7)

Therefore, from the earliest years of the Christian Church there have been deviations of belief and the need to ensure that the fundamental claims of Christianity are preserved. What is, perhaps, most surprising is not the divergences but the extent to which a fundamental unity of belief is maintained.

St Paul’s influence has been profound, not only in enabling Christianity to spread amongst non-Jews, but also because of the numerous letters (‘epistles’) he wrote to many of the churches that he founded or visited. He had profound insights into Christianity, its challenges, the hope it provided and the centrality of the figure of Jesus and of love. Nowhere is this expressed better than in his letter to the Corinthians:

If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing.

Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonour others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.

Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when completeness comes, what is in part disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind me. For now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known.

And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.

(1 Corinthians 13:1–13)

Extracts from Paul’s letters are frequently read in Christian churches around the world and his influence cannot be overstated, although he was also clear that he was not speaking in his own name but in the name of the risen Lord Jesus. St Paul preached fearlessly wherever he went, often adapting his preaching to the local situation. So when he came to Athens, where people believed in many gods, he started speaking by saying that he had seen an altar dedicated, ‘To the unknown God’. He therefore set out to proclaim the unknown god as revealed by Jesus (Acts 17:16–33). Often his preaching made people angry, particularly orthodox Jews. On a number of occasions his life was threatened. As he travelled, so his fame spread and so did the influence of the Christian Gospel. Paul became known as a troublemaker, simply because controversy and opposition followed him around. He was therefore placed under arrest.

Paul, however, was a Roman citizen, and this carried many privileges. Rome was the master of the known world and a Roman citizen was immune from trial by local jurisdictions. All a Roman had to do was to say, ‘I appeal to Rome’ and local courts could no longer try him; he had to be taken to Rome for trial. This happened to St Paul in Jerusalem (Acts 21–22) and he duly appealed to Rome. He was therefore sent on the long and slow journey to Rome, accompanied by a soldier escort. As he travelled, so he continued to preach. He eventually came to Rome where he was placed in prison pending trial. The conditions were quite civilised and he was able to receive visitors. The Christian message had already spread as far as Rome and there were Christian followers in Rome who hastened to visit Paul, and he preached to them. Numbers grew even faster and so did Paul’s reputation.

Jerusalem was the initial centre of the Christian Church. It was in Jerusalem that the original disciples of Jesus lived, and as long as Christianity was seen as a Jewish sect, this made sense. However, once Christianity became open to people of all races, then Jerusalem was no longer the natural centre. With its enormous population and its position of influence, Rome eventually became the new centre, particularly as St Peter is reported to have travelled to Rome and to have died there. What is more, Jerusalem was totally destroyed by the Roman armies in AD 70: the Temple was demolished, the city walls were pulled down and the city was almost razed to the ground. Jerusalem, therefore, could no longer be seen as the centre of Christianity. Tradition has it that Paul died in Rome, eventually sentenced to death by an emperor nervous of the growing appeal of Christianity, but martyrdom was something that was welcomed by the early Christians and the numbers of believers grew even more rapidly.

Figure 2: Roman religion included the cult of the Emperor. Some of the emperors were declared gods after their death. This statue shows the Emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14).

Little is known of the development of Christianity in the sixty years after Jesus’ death, apart from the letters of Paul and a few others, but what is clear is that its growth was explosive and Christians were soon to be found in all corners of the Roman Empire. However, Christianity was seen as a new sect and was viewed with great suspicion. Christians believed in a single God whereas Romans and Greeks believed in many gods. What was more, Roman emperors sometimes declared themselves to be gods and demanded that everyone should offer sacrifices at altars dedicated to them. This, of course, Christians could not accept. What was worse, stories grew up associating Christians with terrible practices such as eating human flesh. It is, perhaps, easy to understand why this would be the case, since at the Lord’s Supper Jesus’ own words were used, commanding His followers to eat His flesh and drink His blood in the form of bread and wine. This became a central part of Christian worship in future generations when Christians shared bread and wine in memory of Jesus (there are complex issues here to which reference will be made later). These stories, and the extent to which Christians were seen as some sort of secret society, began to attract the attention of the authorities and, under some emperors, Christians were persecuted. There were many contributory factors. The values of Christians ran completely counter to the values of Roman society. Christians also rejected the glorification of power and money, and the cult of masculine strength and imperial domination that was normal in the Empire. They preached compassion and the equality of all people – including women and slaves. They preached love, fidelity in marriage and a negative attitude to sexual promiscuity. All these ideas made them in some way alien to normal Roman society, and aliens tend to be viewed with suspicion by the authorities.

Figure 3: One of the earliest Christian symbols was the Ichthus. This is a simple outline of a fish and is found at ancient Christian sites. It was sometimes used as a way for persecuted first-century Christians to communicate. Apart from the links to various Gospel stories about Jesus and fish (several of His disciples were fishermen), the Greek letters (ἰχθύς) are also an acronym which translates into a statement of faith: Ιησους Χριστος Θεος Υιος Σωτηρ – ‘Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Saviour’.

Combined with the explosive growth of Christianity in the early years was a growing (if varied) persecution. Christians were tortured and killed and, increasingly, were used as fodder in the great arenas of the Roman Empire where gladiators fought to the death and wild beasts entertained the mob by killing people. The Christians, instead of resisting and providing entertainment, sang hymns as they waited to be killed. Their lack of fear added to their strangeness when compared with the rest of society. Christians had no fear; they were convinced that God was supporting them and that the God of love would care for them. Death was nothing; it was but a doorway to eternal life. Unlike some suicide martyrs today, however, the lives of the early Christians were filled with love and a commitment to compassion for those who were weak and even for those who were putting them to death – for whom they prayed. Some early Christian communities shared all their possessions and pooled their resources.

Figure 4: The Colosseum in Rome – one of many such arenas across the Roman Empire where Christians were persecuted and fed to wild animals. Their response was to sing hymns and not to be frightened of death.

It is really quite extraordinary. Christianity started its explosive growth in a society with great inequality, where courage and strength were glorified, where bravery in battle was seen as the highest virtue, where the favourite public entertainment was to see human beings killed in a brutal manner and where sexual permissiveness was rampant. Against this background Christianity offered love of an unseen God, total trust in God, a spirit of peace and love for all human beings regardless of their race or social class, fidelity to one partner in marriage and no material rewards at all: simply the assurance that the love of God the Christian experienced in this life would continue after death and that death itself was a triviality: merely the gateway to everlasting life. It could not have been a more counter-cultural message, yet within three centuries this tiny ‘new’ religion focusing on a man crucified as a common criminal in a remote Roman province had become the official religion of the Emperor of Rome. People who followed Jesus found a peace and a joy that they had never before experienced. They trusted each other and this trust was a liberation and a new experience. They refused to judge others and instead sought to help them in any way they could. The response was persecution and ridicule and the might of the greatest empire the world had ever known turning on Christianity and using every means to suppress it. All that happened was that it grew even faster.

In these early formative years (about AD 40–120) the earliest Christian doctrines and ideas began to develop. We have already seen that many biblical scholars consider that John’s Gospel must be the latest Gospel to be written as it is more theological than the Synoptic Gospels. This may well be true (although the shortest Gospel, that of Mark, is also highly sophisticated, albeit in a different way), but what is less certain is that theological sophistication depends necessarily on date. St Paul had a very developed and sophisticated theology yet all scholars acknowledge that Paul’s letters are the earliest records of Jesus’ life, message and death.

Central Christian ideas and doctrines were established within seventy years of Jesus’ death. One of the earliest records is a letter written about AD 115 by Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans in which he starts by praising the firmness of their faith and then goes on to say:

Jesus Christ is truly of the family of David with respect to human descent but Son of God with respect to the divine will and power, truly born of a virgin, baptised by John … truly nailed [to the cross] in the flesh for us under Pontius Pilate and Herod the Tetrarch in order that we may raise a banner for the ages through his resurrection for his saints and faithful people, whether among Jews or Gentiles, in the one body of the Church.

(Michael W. Holmes [editor and translator], The Apostolic Fathers, 2007)

It is clear, therefore, that from an early date some central Christian ideas were agreed and that the authority of a central Church was recognised.

There is, it must be admitted, a trend in recent years among some academic theologians and biblical scholars to ‘explain away’ anything in the Gospels that actually presents Jesus as the person Christians believe He was – God incarnate, come to earth out of love for human beings, who died on the cross and was resurrected. If this basic claim is rejected, then the theological insights or miracles recorded in the New Testament can easily be seen as a human construct reflecting on prior events. Yet Christians claim that, in the incarnation, the heavenly and earthy realms intersect. There is no longer a division between heaven and earth. The old boundaries are destroyed and undermined. The miracle stories are no more than one would expect if God came to earth as a mere human being – fully human but still fully God. This God consented (as John’s Gospel claims) to take flesh and to live among human beings, sharing their condition and weakness, sharing in their troubles, suffering and joy. God in God’s self became incarnate and consented to be crucified on the cross to redeem human beings from the cumulative effects of sin and pain, and to restore once more the relationship of love between God and human beings which had always been intended since the creation of the world.

After the death of Peter and Paul, and with Rome now established as the recognised centre of a growing number of Christian communities, the need became clear for some sort of organisation and some clarity about the nature of Christian beliefs and practice. It is in these first decades after the death and resurrection of Jesus that the early Christian Church was formed and began to lay the groundwork for the growing Christian understanding of God, of Jesus and of human beings in relation to God. The process was to take several centuries and it is to this that we must now turn, as these events are essential to understanding Christianity today.

SIX
The Development of the Early Church

As the numbers of Christians grew at an explosive rate in the four centuries after Jesus’ death, there were many fierce debates about the nature of Christian doctrine and about which ideas were to be considered as ‘orthodox’ or true and which were to be considered as ‘heretical’ or false. The basic Christian story was interpreted in many different ways by groups who had particular ideas or interpretations. The lack of a clear central authority in the early years made this problem worse; each major city had its own bishop and these bishops came together very occasionally to agree on orthodoxy. Communication was, of course, slow. It was not until AD 324 that Christianity became recognised as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Even though Rome was acknowledged as the centre, the autonomy and authority of local bishops were considerable in the early centuries. Often local churches had been founded by significant individuals such as St Paul, amongst many others. One good example of this is the Coptic Church.

Figure 1: Coptic crosses are often elaborate. They may contain a circle to represent God’s eternal love. The three points at the end of each arm of the cross may represent the Trinity. The twelve points are sometimes said to represent the twelve apostles.

Coptic Christians are largely found in Egypt and see St Mark as the founder of their church in Alexandria. Some closely associate St Mark with St Peter and see much of the text of St Mark’s Gospel as being influenced by Peter. What is certain is that Mark travelled throughout much of the Roman world with St Paul. The influence of Mark’s Gospel on the Coptic Church is particularly strong even today. Coptic Christianity may well be one of the earliest of the Christian churches and has maintained an almost unbroken line since the early years. Coptic Christians have faced great persecution over the centuries, particularly when North Africa was conquered by the Muslim armies, and they particularly look to Jesus’ saying that just as He was persecuted, so would His followers be (John 15:20). Coptic Christians today form a very small percentage of the Egyptian population but their influence over the centuries has been profound. They were one of the first churches to argue that Jesus was both fully God and fully man (the theological term for this is ‘one hypostasis in one nature’) and, as we shall see, this was to profoundly influence the rest of Christianity.

The main heresies or challenges to early Christian beliefs are listed below. The word ‘heresy’ means a departure from orthodox Christian beliefs. Heresy was a particular feature of the early Church but, also, of the later Catholic Church, which saw the authority of the Church founded by Jesus as being paramount and held that the Holy Spirit preserved the Church from making fundamental errors of doctrine. Anyone, therefore, who rejected the teaching of the Church or sought to amend or alter it in its fundamentals, was regarded as a heretic. This does not, of course, necessarily mean that the so-called heretics were wrong – just that they were considered to be wrong by a major part of the Christian community. It is, perhaps, helpful to be clear on the main heresies, as these help to illuminate the Christian doctrines that arose.