CAPITAL LETTERS
464. In our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language readily betrays our ignorance.
465. There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also.
This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage.
But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters.
RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
466. Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.
When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought.
467. Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter. Sometimes in poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the second line does not begin with a capital letter.
468. Use a capital for every proper noun. This includes names of persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc.
469. The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions. When these words simply refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a capital.
470. The pronoun I and the interjection O should always be capitals. Never write the pronoun I with a small i.
471. Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter. Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: the Marxian philosophy, the Darwinian theory, Indian money, Japanese labor, etc.
472. Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters. For example: January, February, August, Monday, Tuesday, Friday, etc.
473. Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity. For example: God, Jehovah, Christ, Jesus, etc. It is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ.
474. Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties, also all adjectives derived from them. As for example: Christian Church, Methodism, Republican Party, Mohammedan, Socialist, etc.
475. Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital. In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of war, fame, death, hope, fancy, liberty, etc., as persons. Whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter.
476. Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition. In titles the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The articles, the, a and an are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title.
477. Use a capital to begin every direct quotation. The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: He said, "I will come." This is a direct quotation, but He said that he would come, is an indirect quotation.
478. Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question. For example: Resolved; That the United States should democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the question of war?
479. Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars. For example;
480. Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital. For example, President Wilson, Doctor Smith, Professor Locke. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for example: The society has had several presidents. But if you use the title to take the place of the person's name, for example: The President read the message to Congress, always use a capital.
481. Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address. For example: My dear Father, My dear Mother, My dear Comrade, Dear Aunt Emma, Dear Friend, Dear Fellow Workers, etc. Also in conversation.
Are you coming with me, Mother?
What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith?
When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would write:
Your sincere friend.
Your loving brother.
Or in conversation:
I asked my mother to go with me.
My brother wrote me concerning the matter.
482. Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital. For example:
Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central Market, etc.
These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a capital letter. For example:
Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, etc.
483. The words state and territory, when they refer to particular divisions of the country, should be capitalized. For example:
The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, etc.
State and government are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names. For example:
The State is based on exploitation.
The Government has issued an edict of war.
We do not use a capital in such expressions as:
Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc.
484. In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles. These should be capitalized only when they begin a line.
Exercise 1
Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital:
john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, american.
Exercise 2
Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter.
1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am i, o man.
2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts.
3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live and abide forever.
4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of ice they came to listen unto his words.
5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto.
6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite.
7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become involved in the war.
8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of congress.
9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising his right of free speech.
10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. the abbreviation for california.
11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working class.
12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the national democratic convention.
13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play called "war brides."
14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more war.
15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating thought.
Exercise 3
Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and determine the reason for the use of every capital:
As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and make beautiful this life.—Frank Walsh.
"The toad beneath the harrow knows
Exactly where the tooth-point goes.
The butterfly beside the road
Doth preach contentment to that toad."
"When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess names." From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, 1913.
Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands.
Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands.
Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west,
And the long, long shift is over … Master, I've earned it—Rest.
—Robert Service.
It's O! to be a slave
Along with the barbarous Turk,
Where woman has never a soul to save,
If this is Christian work!—Thos. Hood.
While there is a lower class, I am in it.
While there is a criminal element, I am of it.
While there is a soul in jail, I am not free.
—Eugene V. Debs.
When Adam delved and Eve span,
Who was then the gentleman?
The vilest deeds, like poison weeds,
Bloom well in prison-air;
It is only what is good in man
That wastes and withers there:
Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate,
And the Warder is Despair.
—Oscar Wilde.
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS
485. There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, for example:
B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g.
When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment.
An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period. As for example:
Bldg. Blvd. Mfg.
These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations.
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS
486. We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially those which have long names. Short names like March, April, May, June and July, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations, Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. Days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows: Sun., Mon., Tues., Wed., Thur., Fri., Sat. Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space.
Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Jr., Sr., are never spelled out, but are always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find Doctor and Professor abbreviated to Dr., Prof. This is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full.
487. We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: Geo., Chas., Thos., Wm., etc. But it is always much better to write these names out in full: George, Charles, Thomas, William, etc.
Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them. Jim, Charley, Tom, and Bill are not abbreviations but nicknames.
In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows:
Alabama, Ala.
Arizona, Ariz.
Arkansas, Ark.
California, Cal.
Colorado, Colo.
Connecticut, Conn.
Delaware, Del.
District of Columbia, D. C.
Florida, Fla.
Georgia, Ga.
Idaho, Ida.
Illinois, Ill.
Indiana, Ind.
Iowa, Ia.
Kansas, Kan.
Kentucky, Ky.
Louisiana, La.
Maine, Me.
Maryland, Md.
Massachusetts, Mass.
Michigan, Mich.
Minnesota, Minn.
Mississippi, Miss.
Missouri, Mo.
Montana, Mont.
Nebraska, Neb.
Nevada, Nev.
New Hampshire, N. H.
New Jersey, N. J.
New Mexico, N. M.
New York, N. Y.
North Carolina, N. C.
North Dakota, N. D.
Ohio, O.
Oklahoma, Okla.
Oregon, Ore.
Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna.
Rhode Island, R. I.
South Carolina, S. C.
South Dakota, S. D.
Tennessee, Tenn.
Texas, Tex.
Vermont, Vt.
Virginia, Va.
Washington, Wash.
West Virginia, W. Va.
Wisconsin, Wis.
Wyoming, Wyo.
488. Use a. m. and p. m. after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for example, do not say:
I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m.
Say rather:
I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this evening.
The letters a. m. are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for before noon; and p. m. for post meridiem, meaning afternoon.
489. Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full, as, May 28, 1915, instead of 5-28-15.
In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business correspondence:
@ for at
acct. for account
agt. for agent
amt. for amount
ans. for answer
asst. for assistant
atty. for attorney
av. for average
bal. for balance
bbl. for barrel
bdl. for bundle
bro. for brother
bros. for brothers
blk. for black
bls. for bales
bu. or bush. for bushels
Co. for company
chgd. for charged
C. O. D. for "cash on delivery"
cr. creditor
cts. cents
cwt. for hundred weight
cu. for cubic
do. for the same
dr. for debtor
doz. for dozen
ea. for "each"
et al. for "and others"
e. g. for example
etc. for "and so forth"
ft. for foot or feet
frt. freight
f. o. b. "free on board"
gal. gallon
guar. for guaranty
hdkfs. for handkerchiefs
h. p. horse power
in. for inches
ins. for insurance
inst. for this month
i. e. for "that is"
Jr. for junior
lb. for pound
memo. for memorandum
Mon. for Monday
mo. for month
mos. for months
mdse. for merchandise
mfg. for manufacturing
Mss. for manuscript
no. for number
N. B. for take notice
O. K. for "all correct"
oz. for ounce
% for per cent
pp. pages
pr. for pair
pt. for pint
pk. for peck
prox. for next month
qt. for quart
recd. for received
sec. for second
Sec. for secretary
Sr. for senior
Supt. for superintendent
ult. for last month
via by way of
viz. namely
vol. for volume
wt. for weight
yd. for yard
yds. for yards
yr. for year
Exercise 4
Write the proper abbreviations for the following words:
Building
Charles
Boulevard
Tuesday
Arkansas
Mississippi
Foot
Virginia
Georgia
Senior
By way of
Per cent
Charged
Avenue
October
Delaware
Professor
Thursday
Colorado
Kansas
Handkerchiefs
January
Secretary
Superintendent
Received
That is
Free on board
Monday
Oklahoma
July
Thomas
California
Company
Account
Friday
Merchandise
Number
All correct
Cash on delivery
And so forth
Colonel
Maine
August
William
Missouri
Brothers
Amount
Wyoming
SPELLING
LESSON 28
There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up.
Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling.
While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning.
Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.
It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning.
For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym.
Monday
Abundant
Plenty
Precarious
Uncertain
Behavior
Conduct
Tuesday
Abuse
Invective
Hateful
Odious
Praise
Applause
Wednesday
Sufficient
Enough
Refuge
Asylum
Achieve
Attain
Thursday
Insolent
Revenge
Curb
Repudiate
Censure
Regret
Friday
Prosperity
Subterfuge
Event
Observe
Portion
Destroy
Saturday
Talkative
Indolent
Profit
Volunteer
Cordial
Enormous
There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in meaning, which we very often use incorrectly.
Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning:
Roger's essay—assay won him praise.
The assay—essay indicated the quantity of gold in the metal.
The completion—completeness of the course entitled me to a Diploma.
The completion—completeness of the arrangements fills us with hope of success.
Confidants—confidence often betray us.
The business world is built upon confidants—confidence.
The conscience—consciousness of a religious person is very sensitive.
The class struggle develops class conscience—consciousness.
The strikers listened to unwise counsel—council.
The council—counsel refused the franchise.
You knew he was a cultured—cultivated man, the moment you met him.
It is a highly cultured—cultivated plant.
I asked her for the recipe—receipt for making cake.
He gave her a receipt—recipe for the money.
Emigration—-immigration has reduced the population of Servia.
Emigration—immigration is flooding the United States with cheap labor.
Edison's discovery—invention of the storage battery was a momentous event.
The discovery—invention of gold in Alaska attracted the attention of the world.
The state placed a limitation—limit upon the sale of liquor within certain limits—limitations.