WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE
373. We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use that or who or which. Remember that who always refers to persons, which refers to animals or things, and that may refer to either persons, animals or things.
So when referring to a person, we may use either who or that, and when referring to animals or things, we may use either which or that. As, for example, we may say, either, The man who was here yesterday came back today, or The man that was here yesterday came back today. Either is correct, for who and that both refer to persons.
374. We may make a little distinction in the use of who and that when referring to persons, however. A clause introduced by that is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, The man that was here yesterday, you mean that man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, The man who was here yesterday, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.
The same is true when we are speaking of things using either that or which. The clause introduced by which is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use who or which when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use that to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun who or which, the conjunction and, you can know that the use of the pronoun who or which is correct. As, for example:
I have read the book, which I found very interesting.
You could say instead:
I have read the book and I found it very interesting.
This would express the same meaning. But if you say: I have read the book that I found very interesting, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.
375. We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.
So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS
376. The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, where, when, whence, or why. As, for example:
Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.
No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.
Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.
Note in these sentences the clauses, where a terrible battle was fought, when opportunity will be his, why this world-war was precipitated, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns place, hour and reason, and are introduced by the conjunctions where, when, and why. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:
Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.
No man knows when opportunity will be his.
377. We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.
THE LITTLE WORD "AS"
378. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by as. As is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after such, same and many. For example:
Such books as you should read are listed here.
No such person as he ever came here.
We are facing the same crisis as our comrades faced.
This is the same as you gave before.
He has made as many mistakes as you have.
In these sentences as is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. As may also be used as an adverb. I am as tall as you are.
Here the first as modifies tall and is used as an adverb; the second as is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause you are, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, as is always used when the comparison is equal, so when it is unequal, thus:
I am as tall as you are.
She is not so tall as you are.
We have found that as is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example:
She is as beautiful as she is good.
The clause, as she is good, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjective beautiful. In the sentence, Do as I say, as I say is an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb do.
CONNECTIVE WORDS
379. Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words:
1. Copulative verbs.
2. Relative pronouns.
3. Prepositions.
4. Conjunctions.
380. The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, The book is interesting, the copulative verb is connects the adjective interesting with the noun book, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word.
381. The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example: The man who was here has gone. The clause, who was here, is introduced by the relative pronoun who, which connects that clause with the noun man, which the clause modifies. Who also serves as the subject of the verb was.
In the sentence, The men whom we seek have gone, the clause, whom we seek, is introduced by the relative pronoun whom, which connects the clause with the word men, which it modifies. Whom also serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verb seek.
382. A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence: The man before me is not the culprit, the preposition before connects its object me with the noun man, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the object form.
383. Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction and. Co-ordinate conjunctions such as but, yet, still, however, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought.
384. Co-ordinate conjunctions like therefore, hence, then, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a reason or cause. Co-ordinate conjunctions like or, either, nor, neither, whether, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.
385. Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs, place, time, manner, cause, reason, purpose, condition or result. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force.
But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.
Exercise 3
In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.
1. They are slaves who dare not be in the right with two or three.
2. In the twentieth century war will be dead, dogmas will be dead, but man will live.
3. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but its denial slays the life of the people and entombs the race.
4. Liberty for the few is not liberty.
5. Liberty for me and slavery for you means slavery for both.
6. The greatest thing in the world is for a man to know that he is his own.
7. Nothing can work me damage except myself.
8. He that loveth maketh his own the grandeur which he loves.
9. My life is not an apology, but a life.
10. I cannot consent to pay for a privilege where I have intrinsic right.
11. It is difficult to free fools from the chains which they revere.
12. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.
13. All our liberties are due to men who, when their conscience compelled them, have broken the laws of the land.
14. "It takes great strength to live where you belong,
When other people think that you are wrong."
15. If the truth shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.
16. He is true to God who is true to man.
Exercise 4
In the following sentences underscore all the connectives—copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions.
"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.
One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."
But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.
So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.
And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"—and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been—for the bird—the bird, knew what it would do—because it was an eaglet!"
—Olive Schreiner.
Exercise 5
These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.
Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man.
Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.
Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you.
Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.
But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.
Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.
Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.
Think, dare, do, rebel, fight—ARISE!
It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever.
It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.
There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.
There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.
There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.
Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore.
Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.
Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.
Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin.
Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,
All the predictions of the prophets,
All the wisdom of the sages,
All the dreams of the poets,
All the hopes of the heroes,
All the visions of the martyrs,
All the prayers of the saints,
All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever.
And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.
SPELLING
LESSON 22
In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory.
In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of able or ible, but we find it difficult to determine whether to add able or ible. The sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use a or i. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary.
Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending in ible or able. The words for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in able; the words for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday will end in ible. Notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing ble to bly. So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have also added the adverbs as well.
Monday
Probable
Capable
Usable
Considerable
Respectable
Tuesday
Durable
Salable
Advisable
Available
Equitable
Wednesday
Tolerable
Profitable
Remarkable
Valuable
Comfortable
Thursday
Possible
Horrible
Plausible
Intelligible
Terrible
Friday
Credible
Visible
Infallible
Responsible
Sensible
Saturday
Forcible
Permissible
Feasible
Corruptible
Eligible
PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 23
Dear Comrade:
In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes.
You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade.
In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity.
When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words.
There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion.
Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
INTERJECTIONS
386. We have been studying the parts of speech,—the elements of which sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections.
Interjection means, literally, thrown between, from jecto, to throw,and inter, between. So interjections do not enter into the constructionof sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction.
There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter into the construction. For example, you say:
Oh! I am wounded.
Aha! I have conquered.
Alas! He came too late.
387. Words which we use in these sentences, like, oh, aha, alas, are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. Your Oh! in a sentence like: Oh! I am wounded, would probably sound very much like a groan. But your Aha! in the, Aha! I have conquered, will sound like a shout of victory, and your Alas! in the sentence, Alas! He came too late, will express grief or regret over the fact that he came too late.
These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight.
388. An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.
389. Interjections may be divided into four classes:
1. Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds, as:
(a) Surprise or wonder; as, Oh, Aha, What.
(b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, Hurrah, Ha, Ha.
(c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, Alas, Alack.
(d) Contempt or disgust; as Fie, Fudge, Ugh, Pshaw.
2. Words used instead of a question; as, Eh? Hey?
3. Words used instead of a command; as:
(a) To call attention; as, Hello, Ahoy, Whoa.
(b) To express silence; as, Shh, Hush, Hist.
(c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, Whoa, Gee, Haw, Scat.
4. Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc., as, Bow-wow, Ding-dong, Bang, Rub-a-dub.
When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we write ding-dong to represent the sound of the bell or tick-tock to indicate the ticking of a clock.
Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as for instance, crash, roar, buzz, hush, groan, bang, puff, etc.