A GROUP OF WORDS
299. We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent—with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,—that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.
300. The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:
Strong men, or, men of strength.
City men, or, men from the city.
Jobless men, or, men without jobs.
Moneyed men, or, men with money.
These groups of words like, of strength, from the city, without jobs, and with money, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, strong, city, jobless and moneyed.
You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a phrase; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, of strength, modifies the noun men, just as the adjective strong modifies the noun men. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, adjective phrases, for they are groups of words used as adjectives.
Exercise 1
Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases:
1. Strong men know no fear.
2. She bought a Turkish rug.
3. He followed the river bed.
4. Fashionable women are parasites.
5. He left on his homeward journey.
6. Sensible men readily understand their economic slavery.
7. Intelligent people will not always submit to robbery.
8. Senseless arguments cannot convince us of the truth.
USED AS ADVERBS
301. These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example:
The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity.
The man works now, or, The man works at this time.
The man works here, or, The man works at this place.
In these sentences rapidly, now and here are single adverbs modifying the verb work. The phrases, with rapidity, at this time, and at this place, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, rapidly, now and here. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, adverb phrases.
We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way:
Rockefeller is excessively rich; or, Rockefeller is rich to excess.
He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak; or, He is perfect in body but weak in mind.
In the sentences above, the adverb excessively modifies the adjective rich; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, to excess. In the sentence, He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak, the adverb bodily modifies the adjective perfect and the adverb mentally modifies the adjective weak. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, in body and in mind. These phrases modify the adjectives perfect and weak, just as do the single adverbs bodily and mentally.
302. We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example:
He bought the large house by the river.
The man on the train is going to the city.
He came from the country.
It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, by the river, on the train, to the city, and from the country. You could not say the river house; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house by the river, yet the phrase by the river modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective large. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun house, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.
Exercise 2
Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs?
Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning.
1. Men lived in caves long ago.
2. Man's discovery of fire was the beginning of industry.
3. After this discovery, men lived in groups.
4. The work of the world is done by machinery.
5. The workers of Europe were betrayed.
6. They are fighting for their country.
7. The struggle for markets is the cause of war.
8. The history of the world records the struggle of the workers.
9. The idea of democracy is equal opportunity for all.
10. The invention of the printing press placed knowledge within the reach of the masses.
11. If you will study with diligence you can learn with ease.
12. This knowledge will be of great value to you.
13. Diplomacy means that the plans of nations are made in secret.
14. The men in the factory are all paid by the month.
15. They are afraid to take a trip through Europe at this time.
Exercise 3
Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences:
The men in the trenches are fighting bravely.
An uneducated man is easily exploited.
Our educational system is inadequate.
The skilled workers must be organized.
Careless men endanger the lives of others.
The plans have been carefully laid.
Ambitious men often trample on the rights of others.
Shall our education be controlled by wealthy men?
We want to live courageously.
We want to face the future fearlessly.
We want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor.
By constant practice we can learn to speak effectively.
This book will be a valuable addition to your library.
The number of unemployed men constantly increases.
The men mastered each step thoroughly as they proceeded.
In order to express one's self eloquently it is necessary to think clearly.
We must consecrate ourselves completely to the cause of humanity.
A kind act is its own reward.
Experienced workers can more easily secure positions.
He spoke thoughtlessly but the people listened eagerly.
The soldier was rewarded for his heroic deed.
He is an honorable man and I am not surprised at this brave act.
A prudent man should be chosen to fill that important office.
PREPOSITIONS
303. Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word like of, with, from, in, at or by, which connects the phrase with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, they are called prepositions, which means to place before.
Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place. We might say:
The boys are hiding in the bushes.
The boys are hiding among the bushes.
The boys are hiding under the bushes.
The boys are hiding behind the bushes.
The boys are hiding beyond the bushes.
These sentences are all alike except the prepositions in, among, under, behind and beyond. If you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the bushes had with the rest of the sentence. The prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word bushes to the rest of the sentence.
But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a different thing to say, The boys are hiding in the bushes, and to say, The boys are hiding beyond the bushes. So the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas.
The noun bushes is used as the object of the preposition, and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example:
I bought the book from him.
I took the message to them.
I found the place for her.
In these sentences the pronouns, him, them, and her are used as objects of the prepositions from, to and for. So we have used the object forms of these pronouns.
304. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, The boys are hiding in the bushes, the preposition in shows the relationship between the verb phrase, are hiding and the object of the preposition, bushes.
The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun bush, which is the object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective the. Other modifiers might also be added, as for example:
The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes.
The entire phrase, in the tall, thick bushes, is made up of the preposition in, its object bushes and the modifiers of bushes, the, tall and thick.
305. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, forms a phrase which we call a prepositional phrase. These prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so we have our definitions:
A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.
A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.
A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers.
An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.
An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.
306. Here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence:
above
about
across
after
against
along
around
among
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
down
for
from
in
into
of
off
over
to
toward
through
up
upon
under
with
within
without
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS
307. Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble:
A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object, while an adverb never has an object.
So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition. For example: He went about his business.
Here, about is a preposition and business is its object. But in the sentence, He is able to be about, about is used as an adverb. It has no object.
He sailed before the mast. Here, before is a preposition introducing the phrase before the mast, which modifies the verb sailed. But in the sentence, I told you that before, before is an adverb modifying the verb told.
By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition.
Exercise 4
Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why:
1. He came across the street.
2. He is without work.
3. Come in.
4. He lives near.
5. He brought it for me.
6. I cannot get across.
7. We will go outside.
8. This is between you and me.
9. He can go without.
10. Stay in the house.
11. Do not come near me.
12. They all went aboard at six o'clock.
13. He enlisted in the navy and sailed before the mast.
14. I do not know what lies beyond.
15. I will soon be through.
16. The aeroplane flew above the city for hours.
PHRASE PREPOSITIONS
308. Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: According to—on account of—by means of, etc.
1. He answered according to the rule.
2. I could not go on account of illness.
3. He won the election by means of fraud.
4. The strike was won by help of all the comrades.
5. You can learn to spell only by dint of memory.
6. We speak incorrectly by force of habit.
7. He went to New York by way of Chicago.
8. Ferrer died for the sake of his ideals.
9. In consideration of this payment, we will send you the set of books.
10. Germany issued her ultimatum in defiance of the world.
11. In view of all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence.
12. He will gladly suffer in place of his comrade.
13. In conformity with the information contained in your letter,
14. I will join you on the 10th.
Exercise 5
Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition.
THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED
In the dark one night I lay upon my bed. And in the dark I dreamed a dream. I dreamed God took my soul to Hell.
And we came where hell opened into a plain, and a great house stood there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up to it. The wind of heaven blew through it. Only at the back hung a thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted at long tables. They danced, and I saw the robes of women flutter in the air and heard the laugh of strong men. They feasted with wine; they drew it from large jars which stood somewhat in the background, and I saw the wine sparkle as they drew it.
And I said to God, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, "Wait." And I saw men coming into the banquet house; they came in from The back and lifted the corner of the curtain at the sides and crept inquickly; and they let the curtain fall behind them; they bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded round them, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them of the wine to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars among the old ones beside the wall, and took their places at the table. And I saw that some of the jars were very old and mildewed and dusty, but others had still drops of new must on them and shone from the furnace.
And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, I heard a cry.
And God said, "Stand away off."
And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?"
God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting."
And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?"
God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them—and they forgot!"
I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?"
God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from below; and have gone into the house."
And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed—?"
God said, "They had been wine."
I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered.
And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the house moving.
I said to God, "Is it a wind?"
God said, "A wind."
And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving.
I said to God, "How is it so quiet?"
He said, "They have gone away to drink it."
I said, "They drink it—their own!"
God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very thirsty."
And still the feast went on.
Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips.
Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' robes.
I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I cannot bear Hell!"
God said, "Where will you go?"
I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there."
And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed.—Olive Schreiner.
SPELLING
LESSON 18
There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction.
MONDAY
Abhorrence, of; We have an abhorrence of war.
Abhorrent, to; War is abhorrent to us.
Acquaint, with; I will acquaint you with the facts in the case. You will then be acquainted with the facts.
Acquit, of; The man was acquitted of the charge.
Adequate, to; Our resources are not adequate to the demand.
TUESDAY
Angry, with, at; We are angry with persons and angry at things.
Astonished, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished at you, or by you, not with you.
Confer; We confer with people, upon or about matters.
Contrary; A thing is contrary to our ideas, (not from or than).
Controversy; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a controversy with you. There is a controversy between the two about the result.
WEDNESDAY
Convicted, of (not for). He was convicted of the crime.
Copy; We copy after people, from things, and out of books.
Deprive, of, (not from). We are deprived of an education.
Desire, of and for; We may speak of the desire of a man, meaning man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire for position, for wealth," etc.
Die, of, for and from; A person dies of, not from, a disease. He dies from the effects of an injury. One person may die with another, but never with a disease, for the disease does not die.
THURSDAY
Differ, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things differ from each other; that is, they are dissimilar in appearance. Two persons may differ with each other; that is, contend or disagree. Several persons differ among themselves about or concerning some matter.
Dissent, from (not to). There was a general dissent from that idea.
Guilty, of (not for). He is guilty of the crime.
Incentive, to (not for). It is a great incentive to action.
Receive, from, (not of). Received from John Smith, thirty dollars, etc.
FRIDAY
Infer, from, (not by). I infer this from your remarks, not by your remarks.
Introduce; A man is introduced to a woman, a speaker to an audience; into society or into new surroundings. We introduce a bill in Congress or a resolution in a committee.
Involved, in (not with). We are involved in difficulties.
Listen; We listen for the expected news; we listen to our friends, not at.
Married; One person is married to another, not with another.
SATURDAY
Matter, with, (not of). What is the matter with this?
Opposition, to (not against). There is opposition to the motion.
Part, to part from, means to leave. I will part from my friends. To part with means to give up. A fool soon parts with his money.
Remedy, for; We have a remedy for the disease.
Preventive, against; We have a preventive against disease.
It is easy to sit in the sunshine
And talk to the man in the shade;
It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat,
And point out the places to wade.
But once we pass into the shadows
We murmur and fret and frown;
At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank,
Or throw up our hands and go down.
It is easy to sit in a carriage
And counsel the man on foot;
But get down and walk and you'll change your talk,
As you feel the peg in your boot.
It is easy to tell the toiler
How best he can carry his pack;
But not one can rate a burden's weight
Until it has been on his back.
The up-curled mouth of pleasure
Can preach of sorrow's worth;
But give it a sip, and a wryer lip,
Was never made on earth.
—Ella Wheeler Wilcox.