PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 17
Dear Comrade:
We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week.
Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word.
We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word.
After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented sounds. The appeal was through the ear gate of man, not through the eye gate.
Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,—letters that represent sounds. Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life.
Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
292. You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way, just as adjectives, by adding er and est; for example:
293. Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of more and most or less and least, just as adjectives do; for example:
Or, in the descending comparison:
294. The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well to memorize this list:
Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as here, there, now, today, hence, therefore, etc.
Exercise 1
In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree:
1. He came too late to get his letter.
2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me.
3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well informed.
4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time.
5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the subject.
6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession of the facts.
7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly.
8. I am too weary to go farther today.
9. This is the least expensive of them all.
10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him.
11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend.
12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency.
13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first.
14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive them.
POSITION OF ADVERBS
295. When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies. For example:
She is very studious.
Results come rather slowly.
It is quite evident.
He speaks too rapidly.
When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb after the verb. For example:
The boat arrived safely.
The man came quickly.
The boy ran fast.
The teacher spoke hastily.
But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object. As, for example:
He willingly gave his consent to the proposition.
She gladly wrote the letter which we requested.
A soldier always obeys the command of a superior officer.
When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object. As, for example:
I study my lessons carefully.
He wrote a letter hastily.
The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as:
I studied carefully the lessons given for this month.
He wrote hastily a short letter to his son.
When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase. For example:
The boy has always worked.
The workers will then understand.
He will surely have arrived by that time.
When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb, as for example:
The work can be quickly finished.
The obstacles can be readily overcome.
The lesson must be carefully prepared.
The workers must be thoroughly organized.
When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second, as for example:
I often stop there.
He usually walks very rapidly.
They soon learn to work rapidly.
If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, third; as:
He usually comes here quickly.
Exercise 2
Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence:
1. I only saw the President once.
2. Such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity.
3. No man has ever so much wealth that he does not want more.
4. It seems that the workers can be never aroused.
5. I want to briefly state the reason for my action.
6. I shall be glad to help you always.
7. I only mention a few of the facts.
8. He nearly walked to town.
9. We are told that the Japanese chiefly live upon rice.
10. They expected them to sign a treaty daily.
11. Having nearly lost all his money he feared again to venture.
ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES
296. You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the modifying word between to and the verb. For example: We ought to bravely stand for our rights. The correct form of this is: We ought to stand bravely for our rights.
But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign.
Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way; for example, when we say: To almost succeed is not enough, we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea, if we try to put the adverb almost in any other position. This is also true in such phrases as to far exceed, to more than counterbalance, to fully appreciate, and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately.
So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign to. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately.
COMMON ERRORS
297. The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, only, also and merely, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning of the sentence. For example:
Only the address can be written on this side. We mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side.
The address can only be written on this side. We mean that the address cannot be printed, but must be written.
The address can be written only on this side. We mean that it cannot be written on any other side, but on this side only.
So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended.
Never use an adjective for an adverb. One common error is using an adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, use an adverb. For example, He speaks slow and plain. This is incorrect. The sentence should be, He speaks slowly and plainly. Watch this carefully. It is a very common error.
Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb. Never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb. For example, you would say:
The sea was calm.
Here we use an adjective in the predicate, for we are describing the appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: He spoke calmly, we use the adverb calmly, for the verb spoke expresses an action on the part of the subject, and the adverb calmly describes that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: The water looks clear, but, We see clearly. She appears truthful. They answered truthfully. She looked sweet. She smiled sweetly.
With all forms of the verb be, as am, is, are, was, were, have been, has been, will be, etc., use an adjective in the predicate; as, He is glad. I am happy. They were eager. They will be sad. Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like look, smell, taste, feel, appear and seem. For example: He looks bad. It smells good. The candy tastes sweet. The man feels fine today. She appears anxious. He seems weary.
Never use two negative words in the same sentence. The second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. For example, never say:
I don't want no education.
He didn't have no money.
Don't say nothing to nobody.
She never goes nowhere.
He won't say nothing to you.
He does not know nothing about it.
He never stops for nothing.
The stingy man gives nothing to nobody.
In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; not and no, or not and nothing, or never and no, or never and nothing. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these sentences are:
I don't want any education.
He didn't have any money.
Don't say anything to any one.
She never goes anywhere.
He won't say anything to you.
He knows nothing about it.
He never stops for anything.
The stingy man gives nothing to any one.
Where to place the negative adverb, not. In English we do not use the negative adverb not with the common verb form, but when we use not in a sentence, we use the auxiliary do. For example, we do not say:
I like it not.
They think not so.
He loves me not.
We strive not to succeed.
Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, we say:
I do not like it.
They do not think so.
He does not love me.
We do not strive to succeed.
We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that. We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that.] For example, we say:
This here lesson is shorter than that there one was.
This should be: This lesson is shorter than that one.
Bring me that there book.
This here man will not listen.
These sentences should read:
Bring me that book.
This man will not listen.
Never use here and there in this manner.
Another common mistake is using most for almost.
For example, we say:
We are most there.
I see her most every day.
These sentences should read:
We are almost there.
I see her almost every day.
Most is the superlative degree of much, and should be used only in that meaning.
We often use the adjective real in place of very or quite, to modify an adverb or an adjective.
For example, we say:
I was real glad to know it.
She looked real nice.
You must come real soon.
Say instead:
I am very glad to know it.
She looked very nice.
You must come quite soon.
Really is the adverb form of the adjective real. You might have said:
I am really glad to know it.
But never use real when you mean very or quite or really.
We use the adjective some many times when we should use the adverb somewhat. For example, we say:
I am some anxious to hear from him.
I was some tired after my trip.
What we intended to say was:
I am somewhat anxious to hear from him.
I was somewhat tired after my trip.
Do not use what for when you mean why. Do not say:
What did you do that for?
Or worse still,
What for did you do that?
Say:
Why did you do that?
Do not use worse in place of more. Do not say:
I want to go worse than I ever did.
Say:
I want to go more than I ever did.
Observe the distinction between the words further and farther. Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:
He could go no farther that day.
We will go farther into the matter some other time.
Further means more. For example:
He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.
Never use good as an adverb. Good is always an adjective. Well is the adverb form. Good and well are compared in the same way, good, better, best, and well, better, best. So better and best can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but good is always an adjective. Do not say, He talks good. Say, He talks well. Note that ill is both an adjective and an adverb and that illy is always incorrect.
Exercise 3
Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong.
1. Come quick, I need you.
2. The boy feels badly.
3. Give me that there pencil.
4. I am some hungry.
5. The people learn slow.
6. He never stopped for nothing.
7. What did you say that for?
8. This here machine won't run.
9. I make a mistake most every time.
10. Watch careful every word.
11. The man works good.
12. The tone sounds harsh.
13. I don't want no dinner.
14. I hope it comes real soon.
15. I want to learn worse than ever.
16. She looked lovely.
17. She smiled sweet.
18. He sees good for one so old.
19. She answered correct.
20. He won't say nothing about it.
21. I will be real glad to see you.
22. That tastes sweetly.
23. The man acted too hasty.
24. We had most reached home.
25. They ride too rapid.
DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS
298. Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, very, awfully, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is very, awfully sweet. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them.
Exercise 4
Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences:
1. He looked glad—gladly when I told him the news.
2. Slaves have always been treated harsh—harshly.
3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft—softly.
4. The lecturer was tolerable—tolerably well informed.
5. Speak slower—more slowly so I can understand you.
6. The evening bells sound sweet—sweetly.
7. The house appears comfortable—comfortably and pleasant—pleasantly.
8. If you will come quick—quickly you can hear the music.
9. I was exceeding—exceedingly glad to hear from you.
10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward—awkwardly.
11. The young lady looked beautiful—beautifully and she sang beautiful—beautifully.
12. I looked quick—quickly in the direction of the sound.
13. The sun is shining bright—brightly today and the grass looks green—greenly.
SPELLING
LESSON 17
In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality.
For example from the adjective happy, we form the noun happiness, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective happy, by the addition of the suffix ness. We use this suffix ness quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix ty as in security, formed from the adjective secure, changing the e to i and adding the suffix ty. When the word ends in t we sometimes add only y as in honesty, derived from the adjective honest.
You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example:
Running, from the verb run; settlement, from the verb settle.
In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either ness, y, ty or tion. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes ment and ing.
Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.
Monday
Stately
Forgetful
Real
Concise
Noble
Tuesday
Slender
Empty
Equal
Righteous
Deliberate
Wednesday
Submissive
Dreadful
Eager
Sincere
Resolute
Thursday
Enlist
Defile
Adorn
Nourish
Commence
Friday
Content
Adjust
Induce
Indict
Adjourn
Saturday
Discourage
Refine
Acquire
Enrich
Infringe
PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 18
Dear Comrade:
Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well.
Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.
The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.
Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.
This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society.
So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.
Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.