PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 16
Dear Comrade:
We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.
So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.
But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read.
Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new—something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.
Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables.
What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full.
Yours for Freedom,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
WORDS ADDED TO VERBS
279. We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact.
The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, Men work. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, Strong, industrious, ambitious men work. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb work. I may want to tell you how they work and when they work; where they work and how much; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb work, so I say:
The men work busily.
The men work late.
The men work well.
The men work inside.
The men work hard.
The men work here.
The men work now.
The men work more.
Words like busily, hard, late, here, well, now, inside, and more, show how, when, where and how much the men work.
We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb.
Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns.
280. The word adverb means, literally, to the verb, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: The man was very busy. This lesson is too long. Here very and too are added to the adjectives busy and long to qualify their meaning.
281. You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words more and most to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here more and most are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, how much, how long, etc. In the sentence, The man is very busy, very is used to answer the question how busy. And in the sentence, The lesson is too long, the adverb too answers the question how long.
An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question how. For example; we say, The man works very hard. Here the adverb hard tells how the man works and very modifies the adverb hard, and answers the question how hard. So we have our definition of an adverb:
282. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, a word is a sign of an idea. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts.
HOW TO TELL ADVERBS
283. We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one of the following questions: How? When? Where? Why? How long? How often? How much? How far? or How little? etc. Just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence. Take the following sentence:
He always came down too rapidly.
The word always answers the question when. So always is an adverb, describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came—He always came. Down answers the question where. So down is the adverb describing the place of the action. Rapidly answers the question how, and is the adverb describing the manner of the action. Too also answers the question how, and modifies the adverb rapidly.
Exercise 1
Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify:
1. He writes correctly.
2. She answered quickly.
3. A very wonderful future awaits us.
4. You should not speak so hastily.
5. You can speak freely here.
6. He could never wait patiently.
7. We very often make mistakes.
8. She very seldom goes there.
9. He usually walks very rapidly.
10. I have read the lesson quite carefully.
11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause.
12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today.
13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak correctly and fluently.
14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow.
15. It was more beautifully painted than the other.
16. We eagerly await the news from the front.
17. He always gladly obeyed his father.
18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception.
19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted.
Exercise 2
Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs:
slowly
here
now
gently
loudly
never
soon
carefully
nobly
down
seldom
easily
Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives:
quite
very
more
too
most
less
nearly
so
Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs:
too
very
quite
less
more
most
least
so
CLASSES OF ADVERBS
284. There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes:
1. Adverbs of time. These answer the question when, and are such adverbs as now, then, soon, never, always, etc.
2. Adverbs of place. These answer the question where, and are such adverbs as here, there, yonder, down, above, below, etc.
3. Adverbs of manner. These answer the question how, and are such adverbs as well, ill, thus, so, slowly, hastily, etc.
4. Adverbs of degree. These answer the questions how much, how little, how far, etc., and are such adverbs as much, very, almost, scarcely, hardly, more, quite, little, etc.
5. Adverbs of cause. These answer the question why, and are such adverbs as therefore, accordingly, hence, etc.
6. Adverbs of number. These are such adverbs as first, second, third, etc.
Exercise 3
In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find the adverbs of the different classes.
1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle.
2. It is much more effective to train the young.
3. He came first and remained through the entire program.
4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well.
5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches.
6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat.
7. Come down and discuss the matter with us.
8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts.
9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully.
10. He was scarcely able to tell his story.
11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan.
12. He came third in the ranks.
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
285. The adverbs how, when, where, why, whither, whence, etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs. For example:
How did it happen?
Where are you going?
Whence came he?
When did he come?
Why did you do it?
Whither are you going?
These adverbs, how, when, where, why, whence and whither, are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the time or place or manner of action expressed in the verb.
How may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. For example:
How late did he stay?
How large is the house?
In the first sentence, the adverb how modifies the adverb late, and introduces the question. In the second sentence how modifies the adjective large and introduces the question.
Exercise 4
Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs how, when, where and why, to modify verbs and ask simple questions.
Write sentences using the interrogative adverb how to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question.
ADVERBS OF MODE
286. There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are such adverbs as indeed, certainly, fairly, truly, surely, perhaps and possibly. These adverbs really modify the entire sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is made,—whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For example:
Surely you will not leave me.
Truly I cannot understand the matter as you do.
Perhaps he knows no better.
Indeed, I cannot go with you.
Here, these adverbs, truly, surely, perhaps and indeed, show the manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a class by themselves and called adverbs of mode. Mode means literally manner, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like slowly or wisely or well or ill. They express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole sentence.
PHRASE ADVERBS
287. We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such phrases as of course, of late, for good, of old, at all, at length, by and by, over and over, again and again, through and through, hand in hand, ere long, in vain, to and fro, up and down, as usual, by far, at last, at least, in general, in short, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
288. Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: better, little, late, far, hard, further, first, last, long, short, much, more and high. For example:
The late news verifies our statement.
The man came late to his work.
In the first sentence, the word late is used as an adjective modifying the noun news. In the second sentence, the word late is used as an adverb to modify the verb came.
289. You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule: Adjectives modify only nouns and pronouns, and the one essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it is always joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or pronoun.
You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the work which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, as is the case with adverbs of mode.
290. Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix ly, or by changing ble to bly. For example: honestly, rarely, dearly, ably, nobly, feebly. But all words that end in ly are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in ly also, as, kingly, courtly, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence.
Exercise 5
In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in ly. Some are adverbs and some adjectives.
1. The boy was very little.
2. It was a little early to arrive.
3. It was a hard lesson.
4. She works hard every day.
5. I read the first book.
6. I read the book first then gave it to him.
7. He went to a high mountain.
8. The eagle flew high in the air.
9. We saw clearly the lovely picture.
10. He is a wonderfully jolly man.
11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride.
12. He speaks slowly and clearly.
13. They are very cleanly in their habits.
NOUNS AS ADVERBS
291. Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example:
They were gone a year.
He talked an hour.
They will return next week.
They went south for the winter.
They traveled 100 miles.
The wheat is a foot high.
The man weighed 200 pounds.
In these sentences, the nouns, year, miles, hour, foot, week, pounds and south are used as adverbs. Remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence.
Exercise 6
Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify:
THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS
One more Unfortunate
Weary of breath,
Rashly importunate,
Gone to her death!
Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care;
Fashion'd so slenderly,
Young, and so fair!
Look at her garments
Clinging like cerements;
Whilst the wave constantly
Drips from her clothing;
Take her up instantly,
Loving, not loathing.
Touch her not scornfully;
Think of her mournfully,
Gently and humanly;
Not of the stains of her—
All that remains of her
Now is pure womanly.
Make no deep scrutiny
Into her mutiny
Rash and undutiful;
Past all dishonor,
Death has left on her
Only the beautiful.
* * * * * * *
Alas! for the rarity
Of Christian charity
Under the sun!
O! it was pitiful!
Near a whole city full,
Home, she had none.
* * * * * * *
The bleak wind of March
Made her tremble and shiver;
But not the dark arch,
Or the black flowing river:
Mad from life's history
Glad to death's mystery
Swift to be hurled—
Anywhere, anywhere
Out of the world!
In she plunged boldly,
No matter how coldly
The rough river ran;
Over the brink of it,—
Picture it, think of it,
Dissolute Man!
Lave in it, drink of it,
Then, if you can!
Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care;
Fashion'd so slenderly,
Young and so fair!
Ere her limbs frigidly
Stiffen too rigidly,
Decently, kindly,
Smooth and compose them;
And her eyes, close them,
Staring so blindly!
Dreadfully staring
Thro' muddy impurity,
As when with the daring
Last look of despairing
Fix'd on futurity.
Perishing gloomily,
Spurr'd by contumely,
Cold inhumanity,
Burning insanity,
Into her rest.
Cross her hands humbly
As if praying dumbly,
Over her breast!
Owning her weakness,
Her evil behavior,
And leaving, with meekness,
Her sins to her Saviour!
—Thomas Hood.
SPELLING
LESSON 16
The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having come into the language from different sources. These words are called homonyms.
Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning. For example:
Plane, plain;
write, right.
Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example:
Allow, permit;
lazy, idle.
Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound, but different meanings.
Notice especially principal and principle. Perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. Principle is a noun. Principal is an adjective. You can remember the correct spelling by remembering that adjective begins with a. Principal, the adjective, is spelled with an a, pal.
Notice also the distinction between two, to and too. Look these up carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words. Also notice the words no and know and here and hear.
Monday
Buy—by
Fair—fare
Meat—meet
Our—hour
Pain—pane
Tuesday
Deer—dear
Hear—here
New—knew
No—know
Peace—piece
Wednesday
Two—to—too
Pair—pare—pear
Birth—berth
Ore—oar
Ought—aught
Thursday
Seen—scene
Miner—minor
Aloud—allowed
Stare—stair
Would—wood
Friday
Bear—bare
Ascent—assent
Sight—site—cite
Rain—reign—rein
Rote—wrote
Saturday
Great—grate
Foul—fowl
Least—leased
Principle—principal
Sale—sail