QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES
248. Qualifying adjectives are also called descriptive adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions which and what kind.
You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word oil, for instance. I may say, I oil the engine. Here I have used the word oil as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, The oil is gone. Here I have used the word oil as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence.
1. So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word oil, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, the oil tank. Here I have used the word oil as a descriptive adjective modifying the word tank. So also we may say, the oak tree, the stone curb, the earth wall. In these expressions oak, stone and earth are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.
2. We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.
3. We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as active, talkative, movable, desirable, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs act, talk, move and desire.
LIMITING ADJECTIVES
249. Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the numerals, the demonstratives and the articles.
Numeral Adjectives
250. Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as one, two, three, four, etc., and first, second and third, etc., as for example:
Three men applied for work.
The train ran at the rate of forty miles an hour.
There have always been two classes in the world.
The first martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures.
The eighteenth day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.
In these sentences the adjectives three, forty, two, first and eighteenth are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order.
Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.
Demonstratives
251. We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called demonstrative adjectives. Demonstrate means literally to point out. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are this, that, those, these, yonder, former, latter and same.
These and those are the plural forms of this and that. This and these are used to point out things near at hand. That and those are used to point out things more distant, as This is my book. These are my papers, meaning this book or these papers, close to me. By, That is my pencil and Those are my letters, I mean that pencil, and those letters, which are farther away from me.
Former and latter are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say:
We no longer observe the former customs, but rather prefer the latter.
He did not like his former job but this latter job pleases him.
You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant.
The demonstrative adjective same refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, He has gone to work, I must do the same thing. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question which, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.
Exercise 2
1. This study is very interesting.
2. These comrades will stand by us.
3. That solution will never deceive the people.
4. Those books have opened our eyes.
5. Yonder battle appals the world.
6. Former investigations have had no results.
7. This latter decision has reversed the former.
8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are engaged in the same struggle.
Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.
ARTICLES
252. We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are a, an and the, and we call them articles. The word article literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles.
A and an are called the indefinite articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. The is called the definite article for it points out in a more definite way.
We use a before words beginning with a consonant sound, as a man, a tree, a book; and we use an before words beginning with a vowel sound, as an apple, an editor, an orange, an heir. In heir the h is silent, and we say an because the word begins with a vowel sound. A is used before words beginning with u because long u is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long u is composed produces the initial sound of y, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, a university, a useful work, etc., and not an university. Before words beginning with short u, use an, as, an upstart, etc.
In deciding whether to use a or an, watch the initial sound of the word, not the initial letter. If it is a vowel sound use an, if a consonant sound, use a.
Exercise 3
Underscore the correct article in the following sentences:
1. Bring me an—a apple.
2. He is a—an able orator.
3. A—an heir was born to the German King.
4. He built a—an house for his family.
5. He is an—a honest man.
6. He is a—an undertaker.
7. I had to take a—an upper berth.
8. He joined a—an union.
9. It is a—an unique book.
10. He is a—an unruly member of society.
11. He told a—an untruth.
12. He wears a—an uniform.
13. It is a—an honor to be chosen.
253. When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles an or a must be used if the noun denotes but one object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, A red, white and blue flag. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, A red, a white and a blue flag, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.
Note the use of the article in the following sentences:
He wears a black and white suit.
He wears a black and a white suit.
He sold a red and white cow.
He sold a red and a white cow.
He bought a gas and coal stove.
He bought a gas and a coal stove.
The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects.
254. There are some rules concerning the article the that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, The editor and publisher of this book is unknown. I have used the article the but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, The editor and the publisher of this book are well known. In this sentence I have used the article the twice, the editor and the publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons.
So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb.
Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning:
The secretary and treasurer were—was here.
The secretary and the treasurer were—was elected.
The singer and artist were—was with me.
The singer and the artist were—was on the program.
Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example:
The pen and ink is gone.
He bought a horse and buggy.
The bread and butter is on the plate.
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES
255. You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example:
Which book did you enjoy most?
What work are you doing now?
What machine did you order?
Which and what are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.
Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.
INDEFINITES
256. We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.
An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.
All such adjectives as each, every, either, neither, some, any, many, much, few, all, both, no, none, several and certain are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner.
257. The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:
He did not know which party to join.
I have not learned what time he will go.
In these sentences which and what are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object.
Exercise 4
All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs.
Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: earth-born, self-made, new-lit, blood-rusted. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of fellest.
Slavery, the earth-born Cyclops, fellest of the giant brood,
Sons of brutish Force and Darkness, who have drenched the earth with blood,
Famished in his self-made desert, blinded by our purer day,
Gropes in yet unblasted regions for his miserable prey;—
Shall we guide his gory fingers where our helpless children play?
They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires,
Smothering in their holy ashes Freedom's new-lit altar-fires;
Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay,
From the tombs of the old prophets steal the funeral lamps away
To light up the martyr-fagots round the prophets of to-day?
New occasions teach new duties; Time makes ancient good, uncouth;
They must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth;
Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be,
Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through the desperate winter sea,
Nor attempt the Future's portal with the Past's blood-rusted key.
—Lowell.
Exercise 5
The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of The Young King. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.
And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the walls dripped and streamed with damp.
The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him.
And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?"
"Who is thy master?" asked the young King.
"Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. Indeed, there is but this difference between us—that he wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding."
"The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's slave."
"In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free."
"Is it so with all?" he asked.
"It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold.
And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What robe is this that thou art weaving?"
"It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; "What is that to thee?"
And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon hanging in the dusky air.
SPELLING
LESSON 14
You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending in y change y to i when es is added; as, lady, ladies; baby, babies; dry, dries, etc.
There are several rules concerning words ending in y, knowledge of which will aid us greatly in spelling.
1. Words ending in ie change the ie to y before ing to prevent a confusing number of vowels. For example, die, dying; lie, lying; tie, tying.
2. Words of more than one syllable ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before all suffixes except those beginning with i. For example:
This exception is made for suffixes beginning with i, the most common of which is ing, to avoid having a confusing number of i's.
3. Most words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y before a suffix. For example:
The following words are exception to this rule:
laid,
paid,
said,
daily,
staid.
Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: er, est, ed, es, ing, ly, ness, ful, ment, al.
Monday
Beauty
Portray
Deny
Rare
Multiply
Tuesday
Mercy
Bury
Obey
Lovely
Envy
Wednesday
Tie
Defy
Study
Decry
Crazy
Thursday
Merry
Silly
Lusty
Imply
Day
Friday
Dismay
Duty
Employ
Satisfy
Pretty
Saturday
Pay
Joy
Journey
Qualify
Sorry
PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 15
Dear Comrade:
In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this language which we are studying is the finished product.
This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one another.
But man soon began to think, and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and priest, etc.?
He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he "devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood.
It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for this slow development of written speech.
The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us.
Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
258. From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for example, I may say, This is mine, and the adjective this is used alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am referring when I say this.
When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns—in place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun.
So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things—when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when they are used with a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I may say, This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak. This and that in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun tree. But I may say, This is an oak and that is an elm, and in this sentence this and that are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns.
259. Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule:
When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the same sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence.
So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, This book is good but that is better; book is understood after the word that and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word book. Therefore that is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, This is good, but that is better; there is no noun understood, for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with this and that. Therefore in this sentence this and that are pronouns, used in place of the noun. And since this and that, when used as adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when this and that, these and those, and similar words, are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns.
260. Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. My, his, her, its, our, your and their are all possessive pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives.