THE SILKWORM MOTH
Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned—The virtuous woman and her household—Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk—Present cultivation of the Silkworm—The Silk-farms of the Lebanon—Signification of the word Meshi—Silkworms and thunder—Luis of Grenada's sermon—The Hebrew word Gâzam, and its signification—The Palmer-worm of Scripture.
In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk is mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man buyeth their merchandise any more:
"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.)
In Prov. xxxi. 22 Solomon writes of the virtuous woman "that she maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and purple." The word which is here given as "silk" is translated in the Jewish Bible as "fine linen."
In the other two passages, however, in which the word occurs it is rendered as "silk:" "I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee with badger's skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk" (Ezek. xvi. 10). See also verse 13 of the same chapter: "Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver, and thy raiment was of fine linen and broidered work."
That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late years they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant of the source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk was introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is most likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together with the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that monarch.
At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers of the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is annually produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms. An excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in his "Druses of the Lebanon:"—
"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms' eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series of anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that the smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and the peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the cocoon is fairly set."
After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the writer proceeds as follows:—
"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread of the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the worm, it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either the cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So, first clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the door, and, locking the khlook (room in which the silkworms are kept), deposits the key in his zinnar, or waistband.
"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating them from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding purposes, and all the rest are handed over to the women of his family. These first of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and fibrous web with which it is enveloped, and which constitutes an article of trade by itself. The cocoons are then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else sold to some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they are immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and afterwards, being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of the factory.
"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we were continually encountering horseload after horseload.
"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in the head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most agreeable; but this arises partly from the neglect and want of care of the peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after basketful of cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown about and accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit noxious vapours."
The Hebrew word meshi, which is the one that occurs in Ezek. XVI., is derived from a root which signifies "to draw out," probably in allusion to the delicacy of the fibre.
Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the Silkworm to be described more fully, it may here be added that all silk-growers are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the caterpillars, and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will die of fear. The noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation, fatal to Silkworms; and the breeders were therefore accustomed to beat drums within the hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the loudness of the sound, and imitating as nearly as possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that the caterpillars might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm should happen to break near them.
A quaint use of this superstition is made by Luis of Grenada in one of his discourses:—
Dominica IV. post Pent., Concio 1
"Sunt rursus alii, quorum pectora sic generis humani hostis obsedit, ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel parum animo commoveantur.
"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc exemplo indicabo.
"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita tonitruum sonitu gravantur, ut interduin moriantur. Quo fit, ut qui eos nutriunt tympana frequenter pulsent, ut sonitui molliori assueti a graviori tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi sacrarum concionum auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui quotidianis concionibus audiendis sine ullo animi motu assueti, si quis concionator, a Deo actus, gravius aliquid et formidibilius intonet, non idem magis animo permoveantur; utpote qui negligenter audiendi consuetudine pene insensibiles ad verbi Dei tonitrua affecti sint."
Fourth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1
"Again, others there are of whose breasts the enemy of mankind hath taken such possession, that they be terrified by the thunderbolts of no Divine voice, or are in mind only a little disturbed thereby.
"Now after what sort he stoppeth the ears of these same men I will, by this example, propound and set forth.
"The Bombyxes—that is to say, those worms which do spin the silk threads—are by peals of thunder so troubled that sometimes they die. Wherefore it comes to pass that the keepers of them do ofttimes beat drums, to the end that, being used to the softer noise, they may take no hurt from that sound of the thunder which is heavier. Of such a sort do seem to me to be nowadays many hearers of sacred discourses. For inasmuch as they be used to the hearing of common discourses, by which their minds are nothing moved, if a preacher, urged of God, do sound forth something in any wise solemn and dreadful, they are not, therefore, any the more moved in mind, seeing that by their custom of careless hearing they have grown well-nigh hardened to the thunders of God's Word."
About the correct reading of the Hebrew word gâzam, which is translated in the Authorized Version "palmer-worm," there has always been some difficulty. It only occurs in three passages of Scripture, and in each case reference is made to its destructive powers.
The first is in Joel i. 4: "That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath the locust eaten."
The second is in chap. ii. 25 of the same book: "I will restore to you the years that the locust hath eaten, the canker-worm, and the caterpillar, and the palmer-worm, my great army which I sent among you."
The third is in Amos iv. 9: "I have smitten you with blasting and mildew: when your gardens, and your vineyards, and your fig-trees, and your olive-trees increased, the palmer-worm devoured them: yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord."
BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE.
Syrian Grayling (Hipparchia Persephone). Syrian Orange-tip (Antocharis Glauce).
Syrian Swallow-tail (Papilio Virgatus).
"That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten."—Joel i. 4.
The Jewish Bible retains the reading of palmer-worm, but affixes the mark of doubt, as it does to the canker-worm. Some Hebraists have thought that the word gâzam is one of the names to designate the locust, either some distinct species, or the same species in its undeveloped condition. Others have thought that, as the Jews were very loose in their nomenclature, they would not have made so great an exception in favour of an insect as to apply two different names to it.
Buxtorf derives the word from a root signifying "to shave," or "to shear," in allusion to the havoc which the gâzam makes among the vegetation. The reader will see that it is impossible to decide with any certainty upon the precise species of insect signified by the word gâzam; but there can be no harm in following the translation of the Septuagint and Vulgate, both of which render it as "caterpillar." Assuming, therefore, that it is a caterpillar of some kind, I have inserted figures of some butterflies found in Palestine, together with the caterpillar and chrysalis of one of them, namely the Papilio.
DIPTERA.
FLIES
Flies of Scripture—Dead Flies and the apothecary's ointment—Gadflies and their attacks—Annoyance caused by the House-fly—Flies and ophthalmia—Signor Pierotti's account of the Flies—The sovereign remedy against Flies—Causes of their prevalence.
Next we come to the Dipterous or two-winged insects, which are very sparingly mentioned in the Scriptures, and only one species is definitely named.
There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is zebub, so familiar in the compound word Baal-zebub—i.e. "Lord of Flies." This word only occurs in two passages, one being the well-known proverb, "Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary to send forth a stinking savour" (Eccles. x. 1).
This passage requires a little explanation. By the word "apothecary" we must not understand a medical man, nor by the word "ointment" the mollifying substance used as an application for wounds. The ointment of Scripture signifies the various perfumed unguents used as scents and cosmetics for the living, as part of the preparation of the dead for the grave, and as an essential accessory to Jewish ritual.
These ointments were most carefully made, and the person who prepared and sold them was called the apothecary. If, therefore, the unguents were carelessly stored, and the Flies permitted to enter, the perfume would be destroyed by the odour of their dead bodies.
The second passage is Isa. vii. 18: "The Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt." No particular species of fly is here indicated; but it is evident that some peculiarly irritating and troublesome, not to say dangerous, insect is signified.
Many species of gadfly would produce that effect, and inflict direful torments on those whom they assail. Even in England the gadflies are more than troublesome to human beings. In the New Forest I have been fairly driven back by the attack of the gadflies, which wounded me through a thick woollen coat, while they attacked the uncovered portions of the skin so fiercely that, before reaching shelter, my neck was bathed in blood.
Another word is arôb, which is applied to the flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is probable that some different species is here signified, but there is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would be a sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which infest Egypt, and which at first make the life of a foreigner a burden to him. They swarm in such myriads, that he eats flies, drinks flies, and breathes flies.
Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them. A stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet seem perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive a European mad.
Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:—
"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as I can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small they may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and place, in the house and in the field, by day and by night.
"Frequently in 1857 and 1860, while I was encamped near the tents of the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn themselves were not slow to follow our example.
"I am not the only person who has experienced this nuisance, for Eugene Roger, who travelled in Palestine during the seventeenth century, informs us that during his stay at Nazareth a swarm of small black flies, called bargash, invaded the plain of Esdraelon, where a tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred tents, were encamped, who suffered greatly from them.
"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old, except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and Joshua) to evacuate the country before them.
"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron. The reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient country of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I experienced together with his Excellency Surraya Pasha in the summer of 1859.
"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable, very cheap, and equally useful in all climates.
"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they are found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in the dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies about, the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage of cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing worn by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the country of Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still abundant and free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked assistants in the kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves in their gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in every dish."
GNATS
The Gnat of Scripture—Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the camel, a typographical error—Probable identity of the Gnat and the mosquito.
It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which occurs in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24).
NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE.
Mosquito (Culex). Camel Fly (Tabanus marocanus).
"He sent divers sorts of flies among them which devoured them."—Psa. xxviii. 45.
I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have been printed "strain out," the substitution of the one for the other being only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom which is explained by reference to the preceding article on the fly. In order to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth while drinking, a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup, so that if any insects, as was usually the case, had got into the liquid, they would be "strained out" by the linen.
Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is only used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects and the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which are popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in many parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and are as annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit.
APTERA AND APANIPTERA.
THE LOUSE
Insect parasites—The plague of Lice—Its effect on the magicians or priests—The Hebrew word Chinnim—Probability that it may be represented by "tick"—Habits of the ticks, their dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast.
We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two parasites of a singularly disagreeable character.
With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians, i.e. the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall presently see:—
"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout all the land of Egypt.
"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt.
"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon beast."
Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have told with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah had resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron.
Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The clothing, being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing, while the possibility of the body being infested by parasites was prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every three days.
It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh of cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the Egyptian priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in that of his fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that, in fact, all the idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this particular plague had been withdrawn.
We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by the Hebrew word chinnim. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the word ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following reasons:—
After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds as follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has no connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours' exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect, without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot sand and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until some wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become covered with these horrible vermin.
"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks that the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have been impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the passage in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference to these vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast. It is well known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their natural state, they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after having preyed for some days on the body of an animal." ("Nile Tributaries," p. 122.)
Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of Holy Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would, if anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from them can appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these ticks, which cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed without being torn in pieces, and without leaving some portion of their head beneath the skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is implied in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their bites.