In nearly the middle of the range, there are some hills [Q], before alluded to, formed of a kind of granite externally resembling andesite, and consisting of a white, imperfectly granular, feldspathic basis, including some perfect crystals apparently of albite (but I was unable to measure them), much black mica, epidote in veins, and very little or no quartz. Numerous small veins branch from this rock into the surrounding strata; and it is a singular fact that these veins, though composed of the same kind of feldspar and small scales of mica as in the solid rock, abound with innumerable minute ROUNDED grains of quartz: in the veins or dikes also, branching from the great granitic axis in the peninsula of Tres Montes, I observed that quartz was more abundant in them than in the main rock: I have heard of other analogous cases: can we account for this fact, by the long-continued vicinity of quartz when cooling, and by its having been thus more easily sucked into fissures than the other constituent minerals of granite? (See a paper by M. Elie de Beaumont, "Soc. Philomath." May 1839 "L'Institut." 1839 page 161.) The strata encasing the flanks of these granitic or andesite masses, and forming a thick cap on one of their summits, appear originally to have been of the same tufaceous nature with the beds already described, but they are now changed into porcellanic, jaspery, and crystalline rocks, and into others of a white colour with a harsh texture, and having a siliceous aspect, though really of a feldspathic nature and fusible. Both the granitic intrusive masses and the encasing strata are penetrated by innumerable metallic veins, mostly ferruginous and auriferous, but some containing copper-pyrites and a few silver: near the veins, the rocks are blackened as if blasted by gunpowder. The strata are only slightly dislocated close round these hills, and hence, perhaps, it may be inferred that the granitic masses form only the projecting points of a broad continuous axis-dome, which has given to the upper parts of this range its anticlinal structure.
CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE USPALLATA RANGE.
I will not attempt to estimate the total thickness of the pile of strata forming this range, but it must amount to many thousand feet. The sedimentary and tufaceous beds have throughout a general similarity, though with infinite variations. The submarine lavas in the lower part of the series are mostly feldspathic, whilst in the upper part, on the summit and western flank, they are mostly basaltic. We are thus reminded of the relative position in most recent volcanic districts of the trachytic and basaltic lavas, – the latter from their greater weight having sunk to a lower level in the earth's crust, and having consequently been erupted at a later period over the lighter and upper lavas of the trachytic series. (See on this subject, "Volcanic Islands" etc. by the Author.) Both the basaltic and feldspathic submarine streams are very compact; none being vesicular, and only a few amygdaloidal: the effects which some of them, especially those low in the series, have produced on the tufaceous beds over which they have flowed is highly curious. Independently of this local metamorphic action, all the strata undoubtedly display an indurated and altered character; and all the rocks of this range – the lavas, the alternating sediments, the intrusive granite and porphyries, and the underlying clay- slate – are intersected by metalliferous veins. The lava-strata can often be seen extending for great distances, conformably with the under and overlying beds; and it was obvious that they thickened towards the west. Hence the points of eruption must have been situated westward of the present range, in the direction of the main Cordillera: as, however, the flanks of the Cordillera are entirely composed of various porphyries, chiefly claystone and greenstone, some intrusive, and others belonging to the porphyritic conglomerate formation, but all quite unlike these submarine lava-streams, we must in all probability look to the plain of Uspallata for the now deeply buried points of eruption.
Comparing our section of the Uspallata range with that of the Cumbre, we see, with the exception of the underlying clay-slate, and perhaps of the intrusive rocks of the axes, a striking dissimilarity in the strata composing them. The great porphyritic conglomerate formation has not extended as far as this range; nor have we here any of the gypseous strata, the magnesian and other limestones, the red sandstones, the siliceous beds with pebbles of quartz, and comparatively little of the conglomerates, all of which form such vast masses over the basal series in the main Cordillera. On the other hand, in the Cordillera, we do not find those endless varieties of indurated tuffs, with their numerous veins and concretionary arrangement, and those grit and mud stones, and singular semi-porcellanic rocks, so abundant in the Uspallata range. The submarine lavas, also, differ considerably; the feldspathic streams of the Cordillera contain much mica, which is absent in those of the Uspallata range: in this latter range we have seen on how grand a scale, basaltic lava has been poured forth, of which there is not a trace in the Cordillera. This dissimilarity is the more striking, considering that these two parallel chains are separated by a plain only between ten and fifteen miles in width; and that the Uspallata lavas, as well as no doubt the alternating tufaceous beds, have proceeded from the west, from points apparently between the two ranges. To imagine that these two piles of strata were contemporaneously deposited in two closely adjoining, very deep, submarine areas, separated from each other by a lofty ridge, where a plain now extends, would be a gratuitous hypothesis. And had they been contemporaneously deposited, without any such dividing ridge, surely some of the gypseous and other sedimentary matter forming such immensely thick masses in the Cordillera, would have extended this short distance eastwards; and surely some of the Uspallata tuffs and basalts also accumulated to so great a thickness, would have extended a little westward. Hence I conclude, that it is far from probable that these two series are not contemporaneous; but that the strata of one of the chains were deposited, and even the chain itself uplifted, before the formation of the other: – which chain, then, is the oldest? Considering that in the Uspallata range the lowest strata on the western flank lie unconformably on the clay- slate, as probably is the case with those on the eastern flank, whereas in the Cordillera all the overlying strata lie conformably on this formation: – considering that in the Uspallata range some of the beds, both low down and high up in the series, are marked with vegetable impressions, showing the continued existence of neighbouring land; – considering the close general resemblance between the deposits of this range and those of tertiary origin in several parts of the continent; – and lastly, even considering the lesser height and outlying position of the Uspallata range, – I conclude that the strata composing it are in all probability of subsequent origin, and that they were accumulated at a period when a deep sea studded with submarine volcanoes washed the eastern base of the already partially elevated Cordillera.
This conclusion is of much importance, for we have seen that in the Cordillera, during the deposition of the Neocomian strata, the bed of the sea must have subsided many thousand feet: we now learn that at a later period an adjoining area first received a great accumulation of strata, and was upheaved into land on which coniferous trees grew, and that this area then subsided several thousand feet to receive the superincumbent submarine strata, afterwards being broken up, denuded, and elevated in mass to its present height. I am strengthened in this conclusion of there having been two distinct, great periods of subsidence, by reflecting on the thick mass of coarse stratified conglomerate in the valley of Tenuyan, between the Peuquenes and Portillo lines; for the accumulation of this mass seems to me, as previously remarked, almost necessarily to have required a prolonged subsidence; and this subsidence, from the pebbles in the conglomerate having been to a great extent derived from the gypseous or Neocomian strata of the Peuquenes line, we know must have been quite distinct from, and subsequent to, that sinking movement which probably accompanied the deposition of the Peuquenes strata, and which certainly accompanied the deposition of the equivalent beds near the Puente del Inca, in this line of section.
The Uspallata chain corresponds in geographical position, though on a small scale, with the Portillo line; and its clay-slate formation is probably the equivalent of the mica-schist of the Portillo, there metamorphosed by the old white granites and syenites. The coloured beds under the conglomerate in the valley of Tenuyan, of which traces are seen on the crest of the Portillo, and even the conglomerate itself, may perhaps be synchronous with the tufaceous beds and submarine lavas of the Uspallata range; an open sea and volcanic action in the latter case, and a confined channel between two bordering chains of islets in the former case, having been sufficient to account for the mineralogical dissimilarity of the two series. From this correspondence between the Uspallata and Portillo ranges, perhaps in age and certainly in geographical position, one is tempted to consider the one range as the prolongation of the other; but their axes are formed of totally different intrusive rocks; and we have traced the apparent continuation of the red granite of the Portillo in the red porphyries diverging into the main Cordillera. Whether the axis of the Uspallata range was injected before, or as perhaps is more probable, after that of the Portillo line, I will not pretend to decide; but it is well to remember that the highly inclined lava-streams on the eastern flank of the Portillo line, prove that its angular upheavement was not a single and sudden event; and therefore that the anticlinal elevation of the Uspallata range may have been contemporaneous with some of the later angular movements by which the gigantic Portillo range gained its present height above the adjoining plain.
CHAPTER VIII. NORTHERN CHILE. CONCLUSION
Section from Illapel to Combarbala; gypseous formation with silicified wood. Panuncillo. Coquimbo; mines of Arqueros; section up valley; fossils. Guasco, fossils of. Copiapo, section up valley; Las Amolanas, silicified wood. Conglomerates, nature of former land, fossils, thickness of strata, great subsidence. Valley of Despoblado, fossils, tufaceous deposit, complicated dislocations of. Relations between ancient orifices of eruption and subsequent axes of injection. Iquique, Peru, fossils of, salt-deposits. Metalliferous veins. Summary on the porphyritic conglomerate and gypseous formations. Great subsidence with partial elevations during the cretaceo-oolitic period. On the elevation and structure of the Cordillera. Recapitulation on the tertiary series. Relation between movements of subsidence and volcanic action. Pampean formation. Recent elevatory movements. Long-continued volcanic action in the Cordillera. Conclusion.
VALPARAISO TO COQUIMBO.
I have already described the general nature of the rocks in the low country north of Valparaiso, consisting of granites, syenites, greenstones, and altered feldspathic clay-slate. Near Coquimbo there is much hornblendic rock and various dusky-coloured porphyries. I will describe only one section in this district, namely, from near Illapel in a N.E. line to the mines of Los Hornos, and thence in a north by east direction to Combarbala, at the foot of the main Cordillera.
Near Illapel, after passing for some distance over granite, andesite, and andesitic porphyry, we come to a greenish stratified feldspathic rock, which I believe is altered clay-slate, conformably capped by porphyries and porphyritic conglomerate of great thickness, dipping at an average angle of 20 degrees to N.E. by N. The uppermost beds consist of conglomerates and sandstone only a little metamorphosed, and conformably covered by a gypseous formation of very great thickness, but much denuded. This gypseous formation, where first met with, lies in a broad valley or basin, a little southward of the mines of Los Hornos: the lower half alone contains gypsum, not in great masses as in the Cordillera, but in innumerable thin layers, seldom more than an inch or two in thickness. The gypsum is either opaque or transparent, and is associated with carbonate of lime. The layers alternate with numerous varying ones of a calcareous clay-shale (with strong aluminous odour, adhering to the tongue, easily fusible into a pale green glass), more or less indurated, either earthy and cream-coloured, or greenish and hard. The more indurated varieties have a compact, homogeneous, almost crystalline fracture, and contain granules of crystallised oxide of iron. Some of the varieties almost resemble honestones. There is also a little black, hardly fusible, siliceo- calcareous clay-slate, like some of the varieties alternating with gypsum on the Peuquenes range.
The upper half of this gypseous formation is mainly formed of the same calcareous clay-shale rock, but without any gypsum, and varying extremely in nature: it passes from a soft, coarse, earthy, ferruginous state, including particles of quartz, into compact claystones with crystallised oxide of iron, – into porcellanic layers, alternating with seams of calcareous matter, – and into green porcelain-jasper, excessively hard, but easily fusible. Strata of this nature alternate with much black and brown siliceo-calcareous slate, remarkable from the wonderful number of huge embedded logs of silicified wood. This wood, according to Mr. R. Brown, is (judging from several specimens) all coniferous. Some of the layers of the black siliceous slate contained irregular angular fragments of imperfect pitchstone, which I believe, as in the Uspallata range, has originated in a metamorphic process. There was one bed of a marly tufaceous nature, and of little specific gravity. Veins of agate and calcareous spar are numerous. The whole of this gypseous formation, especially the upper half, has been injected, metamorphosed, and locally contorted by numerous hillocks of intrusive porphyries crowded together in an extraordinary manner. These hillocks consist of purple claystone and of various other porphyries, and of much white feldspathic greenstone passing into andesite; this latter variety included in one case crystals of orthitic and albitic feldspar touching each other, and others of hornblende, chlorite, and epidote. The strata surrounding these intrusive hillocks at the mines of Los Hornos, are intersected by many veins of copper-pyrites, associated with much micaceous iron-ore, and by some of gold: in the neighbourhood of these veins the rocks are blackened and much altered. The gypsum near the intrusive masses is always opaque. One of these hillocks of porphyry was capped by some stratified porphyritic conglomerate, which must have been brought up from below, through the whole immense thickness of the overlying gypseous formation. The lower beds of the gypseous formation resemble the corresponding and probably contemporaneous strata of the main Cordillera; whilst the upper beds in several respects resemble those of the Uspallata chain, and possibly may be contemporaneous with them; for I have endeavoured to show that the Uspallata beds were accumulated subsequently to the gypseous or Neocomian formations of the Cordillera.
This pile of strata dips at an angle of about 20 degrees to N.E. by N., close up to the foot of the Cuesta de Los Hornos, a crooked range of mountains formed of intrusive rocks of the same nature with the above described hillocks. Only in one or two places, on this south-eastern side of the range, I noticed a narrow fringe of the upper gypseous strata brushed up and inclined south-eastward from it. On its north-eastern flank, and likewise on a few of the summits, the stratified porphyritic conglomerate is inclined N.E.: so that, if we disregard the very narrow anticlinal fringe of gypseous strata at its S.E. foot, this range forms a second uniclinal axis of elevation. Proceeding in a north-by-east direction to the village of Combarbala, we come to a third escarpment of the porphyritic conglomerate, dipping eastwards, and forming the outer range of the main Cordillera. The lower beds were here more jaspery than usual, and they included some white cherty strata and red sandstones, alternating with purple claystone porphyry. Higher up in the Cordillera there appeared to be a line of andesitic rocks; and beyond them, a fourth escarpment of the porphyritic conglomerate, again dipping eastwards or inwards. The overlying gypseous strata, if they ever existed here, have been entirely removed.
COPPER MINES OF PANUNCILLO.
From Combarbala to Coquimbo, I traversed the country in a zigzag direction, crossing and recrossing the porphyritic conglomerate and finding in the granitic districts an unusual number of mountain-masses composed of various intrusive, porphyritic rocks, many of them andesitic. One common variety was greenish-black, with large crystals of blackish albite. At Panuncillo a short N.N.W. and S.S.E. ridge, with a nucleus formed of greenstone and of a slate-coloured porphyry including crystals of glassy feldspar, deserves notice, from the very singular nature of the almost vertical strata composing it. These consist chiefly of a finer and coarser granular mixture, not very compact, of white carbonate of lime, of protoxide of iron and of yellowish garnets (ascertained by Professor Miller), each grain being an almost perfect crystal. Some of the varieties consist exclusively of granules of the calcareous spar; and some contain grains of copper ore, and, I believe, of quartz. These strata alternate with a bluish, compact, fusible, feldspathic rock. Much of the above granular mixture has, also, a pseudo-brecciated structure, in which fragments are obscurely arranged in planes parallel to those of the stratification, and are conspicuous on the weathered surfaces. The fragments are angular or rounded, small or large, and consist of bluish or reddish compact feldspathic matter, in which a few acicular crystals of feldspar can sometimes be seen. The fragments often blend at their edges into the surrounding granular mass, and seem due to a kind of concretionary action.
These singular rocks are traversed by many copper veins, and appear to rest conformably on the granular mixture (in parts as fine-grained as a sandstone) of quartz, mica, hornblende, and feldspar; and this on fine- grained, common gneiss; and this on a laminated mass, composed of pinkish ORTHITIC feldspar, including a few specks of hornblende; and lastly, this on granite, which together with andesitic rocks, form the surrounding district.
COQUIMBO: MINING DISTRICT OF ARQUEROS.
At Coquimbo the porphyritic conglomerate formation approaches nearer to the Pacific than in any other part of Chile visited by me, being separated from the coast by a tract only a few miles broad of the usual plutonic rocks, with the addition of a porphyry having a red euritic base. In proceeding to the mines of Arqueros, the strata of porphyritic conglomerate are at first nearly horizontal, an unusual circumstance, and afterwards they dip gently to S.S.E. After having ascended to a considerable height, we come to an undulatory district in which the famous silver mines are situated; my examination was chiefly confined to those of S. Rosa. Most of the rocks in this district are stratified, dipping in various directions, and many of them are of so singular a nature, that at the risk of being tedious I must briefly describe them. The commonest variety is a dull-red, compact, finely brecciated stone, containing much iron and innumerable white crystallised particles of carbonate of lime, and minute extraneous fragments. Another variety is almost equally common near S. Rosa; it has a bright green, scanty basis, including distinct crystals and patches of white carbonate of lime, and grains of red, semi-micaceous oxide of iron; in parts the basis becomes dark green, and assumes an obscure crystalline arrangement, and occasionally in parts it becomes soft and slightly translucent like soapstone. These red and green rocks are often quite distinct, and often pass into each other; the passage being sometimes affected by a fine brecciated structure, particles of the red and green matter being mingled together. Some of the varieties appear gradually to become porphyritic with feldspar; and all of them are easily fusible into pale or dark-coloured beads, strongly attracted by the magnet. I should perhaps have mistaken several of these stratified rocks for submarine lavas, like some of those described at the Puente del Inca, had I not examined, a few leagues eastward of this point, a fine series of analogous but less metamorphosed, sedimentary beds belonging to the gypseous formation, and probably derived from a volcanic source.
This formation is intersected by numerous metalliferous veins, running, though irregularly, N.W. and S.E., and generally at right angles to the many dikes. The veins consist of native silver, of muriate of silver, an amalgam of silver, cobalt, antimony, and arsenic, generally embedded in sulphate of barytes. (See the Report on M. Domeyko's account of those mines, in the "Comptes Rendus" tome 14 page 560.) I was assured by Mr. Lambert, that native copper without a trace of silver has been found in the same vein with native silver without a trace of copper. At the mines of Aristeas, the silver veins are said to be unproductive as soon as they pass into the green strata, whereas at S. Rosa, only two or three miles distant, the reverse happens; and at the time of my visit, the miners were working through a red stratum, in the hope of the vein becoming productive in the underlying green sedimentary mass. I have a specimen of one of these green rocks, with the usual granules of white calcareous spar and red oxide of iron, abounding with disseminated particles of glittering native and muriate of silver, yet taken at the distance of one yard from any vein, – a circumstance, as I was assured, of very rare occurrence.
SECTION EASTWARD, UP THE VALLEY OF COQUIMBO.
After passing for a few miles over the coast granitic series, we come to the porphyritic conglomerate, with its usual characters, and with some of the beds distinctly displaying their mechanical origin. The strata, where first met with, are, as before stated, only slightly inclined; but near the Hacienda of Pluclaro, we come to an anticlinal axis, with the beds much dislocated and shifted by a great fault, of which not a trace is externally seen in the outline of the hill. I believe that this anticlinal axis can be traced northwards, into the district of Arqueros, where a conspicuous hill called Cerro Blanco, formed of a harsh, cream-coloured euritic rock, including a few crystals of reddish feldspar, and associated with some purplish claystone porphyry, seems to fall on a line of elevation. In descending from the Arqueros district, I crossed on the northern border of the valley, strata inclined eastward from the Pluclaro axis: on the porphyritic conglomerate there rested a mass, some hundred feet thick, of brown argillaceous limestone, in parts crystalline, and in parts almost composed of Hippurites Chilensis, d'Orbigny; above this came a black calcareous shale, and on it a red conglomerate. In the brown limestone, with the Hippurites, there was an impression of a Pecten and a coral, and great numbers of a large Gryphaea, very like, and, according to Professor E. Forbes, probably identical with G. Orientalis, Forbes MS., – a cretaceous species (probably upper greensand) from Verdachellum, in Southern India. These fossils seem to occupy nearly the same position with those at the Puente del Inca, – namely, at the top of the porphyritic conglomerate, and at the base of the gypseous formation.
A little above the Hacienda of Pluclaro, I made a detour on the northern side of the valley, to examine the superincumbent gypseous strata, which I estimated at 6,000 feet in thickness. The uppermost beds of the porphyritic conglomerate, on which the gypseous strata conformably rest, are variously coloured, with one very singular and beautiful stratum composed of purple pebbles of various kinds of porphyry, embedded in white calcareous spar, including cavities lined with bright-green crystallised epidote. The whole pile of strata belonging to both formations is inclined, apparently from the above-mentioned axis of Pluclaro, at an angle of between 20 and 30 degrees to the east. I will here give a section of the principal beds met with in crossing the entire thickness of the gypseous strata.
Firstly: above the porphyritic conglomerate formation, there is a fine- grained, red, crystalline sandstone.
Secondly: a thick mass of smooth-grained, calcareo-aluminous, shaly rock, often marked with dendritic manganese, and having, where most compact, the external appearance of honestone. It is easily fusible. I shall for the future, for convenience' sake, call this variety pseudo-honestone. Some of the varieties are quite black when freshly broken, but all weather into a yellowish-ash coloured, soft, earthy substance, precisely as is the case with the compact shaly rocks of the Peuquenes range. This stratum is of the same general nature with many of the beds near Los Hornos in the Illapel section. In this second bed, or in the underlying red sandstone (for the surface was partially concealed by detritus), there was a thick mass of gypsum, having the same mineralogical characters with the great beds described in our sections across the Cordillera.
Thirdly: a thick stratum of fine-grained, red, sedimentary matter, easily fusible into a white glass, like the basis of claystone porphyry; but in parts jaspery, in parts brecciated, and including crystalline specks of carbonate of lime. In some of the jaspery layers, and in some of the black siliceous slaty bands, there were irregular seams of imperfect pitchstone, undoubtedly of metamorphic origin, and other seams of brown, crystalline limestone. Here, also, were masses, externally resembling ill-preserved silicified wood.
Fourthly and fifthly: calcareous pseudo-honestone; and a thick stratum concealed by detritus.
Sixthly: a thinly stratified mass of bright green, compact, smooth-grained, calcareo-argillaceous stone, easily fusible, and emitting a strong aluminous odour: the whole has a highly angulo-concretionary structure; and it resembles, to a certain extent, some of the upper tufaceo-infusorial deposits of the Patagonian tertiary formation. It is in its nature allied to our pseudo-honestone, and it includes well characterised layers of that variety; and other layers of a pale green, harder, and brecciated variety; and others of red sedimentary matter, like that of bed Three. Some pebbles of porphyries are embedded in the upper part.
Seventhly: red sedimentary matter or sandstone like that of bed One, several hundred feet in thickness, and including jaspery layers, often having a finely brecciated structure.
Eighthly: white, much indurated, almost crystalline tuff, several hundred feet in thickness, including rounded grains of quartz and particles of green matter like that of bed Six. Parts pass into a very pale green, semi- porcellanic stone.
Ninthly: red or brown coarse conglomerate, three or four hundred feet thick, formed chiefly of pebbles of porphyries, with volcanic particles, in an arenaceous, non-calcareous, fusible basis: the upper two feet are arenaceous without any pebbles.
Tenthly: the last and uppermost stratum here exhibited, is a compact, slate-coloured porphyry, with numerous elongated crystals of glassy feldspar, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in thickness; it lies strictly conformably on the underlying conglomerate, and is undoubtedly a submarine lava.
This great pile of strata has been broken up in several places by intrusive hillocks of purple claystone porphyry, and by dikes of porphyritic greenstone: it is said that a few poor metalliferous veins have been discovered here. From the fusible nature and general appearance of the finer-grained strata, they probably owe their origin (like the allied beds of the Uspallata range, and of the Upper Patagonian tertiary formations), to gentle volcanic eruptions, and to the abrasion of volcanic rocks. Comparing these beds with those in the mining district of Arqueros, we see at both places rocks easily fusible, of the same peculiar bright green and red colours, containing calcareous matter, often having a finely brecciated structure, often passing into each other, and often alternating together: hence I cannot doubt that the only difference between them, lies in the Arqueros beds having been more metamorphosed (in conformity with their more dislocated and injected condition), and consequently in the calcareous matter, oxide of iron and green colouring matter, having been segregated under a more crystalline form.
The strata are inclined, as before stated, from 20 to 30 degrees eastward, towards an irregular north and south chain of andesitic porphyry and of porphyritic greenstone, where they are abruptly cut off. In the valley of Coquimbo, near to the H. of Gualliguaca, similar plutonic rocks are met with, apparently a southern prolongation of the above chain; and eastward of it we have an escarpment of the porphyritic conglomerate, with the strata inclined at a small angle eastward, which makes the third escarpment, including that nearest the coast. Proceeding up the valley we come to another north and south line of granite, andesite, and blackish porphyry, which seem to lie in an irregular trough of the porphyritic conglomerate. Again, on the south side of the R. Claro, there are some irregular granitic hills, which have thrown off the strata of porphyritic conglomerate to the N.W. by W.; but the stratification here has been much disturbed. I did not proceed any farther up the valley, and this point is about two-thirds of the distance between the Pacific and the main Cordillera.