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Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to account."⁵⁵ The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays. They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet found among them.⁵⁶ The rite of circumcision was practised on the northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr. Eyre.⁵⁷ For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt. Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure may be the same. This is a more important test in ethnological comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of Australia are extinct.

By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left, reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior. Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water; and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks, – and with these the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a month – sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound of meat per day – frequently putrescent – unaccompanied with salt, bread, or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives, and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December, 1845.⁵⁸

The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published in detail. The report⁵⁹ which has appeared consists chiefly of notices of the geography of the region traversed, the soil, productions, climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells, water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen. In lat. 18° 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.

In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of granite and basaltic rocks, which he calls the granite range; behind this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water. The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters. Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.

By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition to explore the interior of this great island.⁶⁰ The Doctor now proposes to leave Moreton bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with success.

An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had reached the latitude of 29° 45' longitude 147° 34'. The particulars of Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course of future operations.⁶¹

The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.

Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land, accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo. 1845.

South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.

History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.

Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life, by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.

A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.

Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo. London, 1846.

Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.

Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo. Lond. 1847.

Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies, and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects relating to the history and present condition of the British colonies of any work extant.

ASIA

Lycia, Asia Minor. This interesting region has been further explored by two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who, accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir Charles Fellows.

This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.

It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first made known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations, that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.

The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities situated in more accessible places.

These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known, may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi, many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the most common form of sepulchral inscription.

"THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."

Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.

In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.

The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and Professor Grotefend.

In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke the language called Lycian, now first made known through these inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned; which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known – namely, those at Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along with that of the Persepolitan inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.

Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus. This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of the entire region, – a fact that he would not have overlooked had such been the case.

It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the dominant party, and introduced their language.⁶²

It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in manners, in religion, and having no interest connected with the locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.

Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof. E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.

A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.

An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles Fellows, royal 8vo.

An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the appendix to Fellows' Journal.)

ARABIA

If we now turn to the discoveries that have recently been made in the southern part of Arabia, we find much in them worthy of attention. This country, called in the Scriptures Hazarmaveth, by the natives Hadramaut, and by the classical writers of antiquity, Arabia Felix, is celebrated as being the kingdom of the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, as well as for the gold, gems, frankincense and other precious productions, which it furnished in ancient times. It is represented by the Greek and Roman writers as a populous country, with many extensive cities, abounding in temples and palaces; though the palpable fables with which these accounts are intermingled, show that at least they had no personal knowledge of the facts, but retailed them at second hand.

After Europe had awoke from the intellectual slumber of the dark ages, the Arabs were long regarded only as objects of religious and political abhorrence. The discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, at the close of the fifteenth century, by diverting the channel of Indo-European traffic from the Red Sea, left the countries bordering upon it in such a state of solitude, that when better feelings began to prevail, there was no means of obtaining any direct information respecting them.

In 1650, the illustrious Pococke, by the publication of his Specimens of Ancient Arabian History, extracted from native authors, created a curiosity respecting Southern Arabia and its ancient inhabitants, which successive collections of a similar nature, down to our own times, have served rather to increase than to gratify. The researches of Niebuhr, Seetzen, and Burckhardt, in the latter part of the last, and the beginning of the present century, made us somewhat acquainted with the western extremity of this country, along the shores of the Red Sea; but before the investigations of which we are about to speak, its southern coast had never been accurately explored, and the great body of the interior, with its once famous capital, Mareb, remained, as it ever had been, completely unknown to and unvisited by the natives of Europe.

The hordes of pirates, which until twenty years ago infested the Persian Gulf, caused the government of British India to order a complete survey of its islands and both its shores, with the view of laying bare their haunts, and putting an end to their depredations. In 1829, after this service had been performed, the project then recently set on foot of establishing a steam communication between England and Bombay, caused orders to be issued for a similar examination of the Red Sea.

The attention of the officers composing the expedition, was not restricted to the technical duties in which they were chiefly engaged. It was well known that information of every kind would be prized by the government which they served; and this, together with the monotony of life on board ship on the one hand, and the novelty of the scenes by which they were surrounded on the other, seems to have created among them a spirit of emulation that led to the most interesting discoveries respecting both the geography and the antiquities of the adjacent countries.

Among the most intelligent and enterprising of these officers was the late Lieut. Wellsted, who thus describes his reflections on joining the expedition in the Red Sea, on the 12th October, 1830. "From the earliest dawn of history, the northern shores of the Red Sea have figured as the scene of events which both religious and civil records have united to render memorable. Here Moses and the Patriarchs tended their flocks, and put in motion those springs of civilization, which, from that period, have never ceased to urge forward the whole human race in the career of improvement. On the one hand the Valley of the Wanderings, commencing near the site of Memphis, and opening upon the Red Sea, conducts the fancy along the track pursued by the Hebrews during their flight out of Egypt; on the other hand are Mount Sinai, bearing still upon its face the impress of miraculous events, and beyond it that strange, stormy, and gloomy-looking sea, once frequented by Phœnician merchants' ships, by the fleets of Solomon and Pharaoh, and those barks of later times which bore the incenses, the gems, the gold and spices of the East, to be consumed or lavishly squandered upon favorites at the courts of Macedonia or Rome. But the countries lying along this offshoot of the Indian Ocean, have another kind of interest, peculiar perhaps to themselves. On the Arabian side we find society much what it was four thousand years ago; for amidst the children of Ishmael it has undergone but trifling modifications. Their tents are neither better nor worse than they were when they purchased Joseph of his brethren, on their way to Egypt; the Sheikhs possess no other power or influence than they enjoyed then; the relations of the sexes have suffered little or no changes; they eat, drink, clothe themselves, educate their children, make war and peace, just as they did in the day of the Exodus. But on the opposite shores, all has been change, fluctuation, and decay. While the Bedouins have wandered with their camels and their flocks, unaspiring, unimproving, they have looked across the gulf and beheld the Egyptian overthrown by the Persian, the Persian by the Greek, the Greek by the Roman, and the Roman in his turn by a daring band from their own burning deserts. They have seen empires grow up like Jonah's gourd. War has swept away some; the varieties and luxuries of peace have brought others to the ground; and every spot along these shores is celebrated."

When the northeastern and the western shores of the Arabian peninsula had thus been investigated, there still remained to be explored the south eastern shore, the coast of the anciently renowned province of Hadramaut, extending from Tehama, on the Red Sea, to the province of Oman, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf; and it is to the discoveries made in this almost unknown part of the world that I now wish more particularly to allude.

In the year 1839 Capt. Haines, the commander of the expedition and the present governor of Aden, published his survey of about two fifths of this coast, extending from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb as far east as Missenaat, in long. 51° east of Greenwich.⁶³ In the year 1845, he published his further survey of about an equal portion extending to Cape Isolette, in long. 57° 51', leaving about one fifth of the whole extent on the eastern end still to be explored.⁶⁴

In June, 1843, Adolphe Baron Wrede, a Hanoverian gentleman, made an excursion from Makallah on the coast, into the interior of the country. He visited among other places an extensive valley called Wadi Doan, which he thus describes. "The sudden appearance of the Wadi Doan, took me by surprise and impressed me much with the grandeur of the scene. The ravine, five hundred feet wide and six hundred feet in depth, is enclosed between perpendicular rocks, the debris of which form in one part a slope reaching to half their height. On this slope, towns and villages rise contiguously in the form of an amphitheatre; while below the date grounds, which are covered with a forest of trees, the river about twenty feet broad and enclosed by high and walled embankments is seen winding through fields laid out in terraces, then pursuing its course in the open plain, irrigated by small canals branching from it. My first view of the valley disclosed to me four towns and four villages, within the space of an hour's distance." He also gives an account of some curious spots of quicksand, in the midst of the great desert of El-Akkaf, which are regarded with superstitious horror by the wandering Bedouins. A cord of sixty fathoms in length with a plummet at the end, which he cast into one of them, disappeared in the course of five minutes. His narrative is published in the fourteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.

In spite of the glowing descriptions of ancient authors, the idea hitherto entertained of this region in modern times, has been that of a succession of desert plains and sand-hills, with nothing to give animation to the arid scene but solitary groups of Bedouins and occasionally a passing caravan. The recent explorations, however, of which the one just quoted is a specimen, show that this is far from being a correct view of the entire country. The coast is thickly studded with fishing-villages and small seaports, which still carry on, though on a diminished scale, the trade with India and the Persian gulf, which has existed ever since the dawn of history. It is true, the general appearance of the country along the coast, consisting as it does of successive ranges of sand-hills, is such as to naturally give rise to the views entertained and promulgated by navigators, who have had no opportunity of visiting the interior. But the deeper researches that have been made during the last ten or twelve years, show that these opinions are very erroneous; for besides that there are a number of green valleys running down to the coast, produced by streams provided with water for at least a good part of the year, no sooner has the traveller surmounted the first range of sand-hills, than his sight begins to be regaled with numerous well watered valleys and mountains covered with verdure. Besides this, even in those parts of the country where the surface is naturally a desert plain, the inhabitants have possessed from the remotest times the art of forming flourishing oases, in which to establish their hamlets and towns; an operation which, as Wellsted remarks, is effected with a labor and skill that seem more Chinese than Arabian. This traveller says: "The greater part of the face of the country being destitute of running streams on the surface, the Arabs have sought in elevated places for springs or fountains beneath it. A channel from this fountain-head is then, with a very slight descent, bored in the direction in which it is to be conveyed, leaving apertures at regular distances, to afford light and air to those who are occasionally sent to keep it clean. In this manner water is frequently conducted from a distance of six or eight miles, and an unlimited supply is thus obtained. These channels are usually about four feet broad and two feet deep, and contain a clear and rapid stream. Few of the large towns or oases but had four or five of these rivulets or feleji running into them. The isolated spots to which water is thus conveyed possess a soil so fertile, that nearly every grain, fruit, or vegetable, common to India, Arabia, or Persia, is produced almost spontaneously; and the tales of the oases will be no longer regarded as an exaggeration, since a single step conveys the traveller from the glare and sand of the desert into a fertile tract, watered by a hundred rills, teeming with the most luxuriant vegetation, and embowered by lofty and stately trees, whose umbrageous foliage the fiercest rays of a noontide sun cannot penetrate."⁶⁵

These oases and the towns situated in them, date from various periods; some of those already discovered being evidently of considerable antiquity. In describing some of these towns, Wellsted says: "The instant you step from the Desert within the Grove, a most sensible change of the atmosphere is experienced. The air feels cold and damp; the ground in every direction is saturated with moisture; and from the density of the shade, the whole appears dark and gloomy. To avoid the damp and catch an occasional beam of the sun above the trees, the houses are usually very lofty. A parapet encircling the upper part is turreted; and on some of the largest houses guns are mounted. The windows and doors have the Saracenic arch; and every part of the building is profusely decorated with ornaments of stucco in bas relief, some in very good taste. The doors are also cased with brass, and have rings and other massive ornaments of the same metal." These descriptions relate to the province of Oman, the eastern extremity of Southern Arabia. The glimpses already obtained of this ancient and famous land, sufficiently prove that the fortunate traveller who shall succeed in obtaining access into the interior of the country, which has always been a terra incognita to Europeans and their descendants, will find an abundance of objects of interest to reward his zeal and self-devotion.

There is however another class of interesting objects, relating to the ancient history of the country, which I have not alluded to until now, because I wish to speak of them more particularly. These are the ancient inscriptions, of which a number have already been discovered and in part decyphered.

Several Arabian writers have stated that there existed in the southern part of their country, before the time of Mohammed, a kind of writing which they call Himyaritic, after the name of the ancient inhabitants of the country, the Beni Himyar. But the confused nature of these accounts, together with the Arab practice of giving the name of Himyaritic to every ancient mode of writing which they were unable to read, caused the story to be regarded as little better than fabulous. In the year 1808 the late Baron de Sacy published a learned treatise on the subject, in which he collected all the Arabian accounts; but no further progress was made in the enquiry, until the discovery of a number of inscriptions on various massy ruins situated along the coast and in the interior, by officers attached to the surveying expedition already spoken of, in the years 1834 and '5.

Copies of these inscriptions were transmitted to the late Dr. Gesenius of Halle, one of the first Orientalists of Europe. After making some progress in the investigation, he gave up the subject to his colleague Dr. Rödiger, who had devoted himself to it with great ardor and success. The latter published a copious dissertation containing the results he had arrived at, which he reprinted in 1842 by way of an appendix to his German edition of Wellsted's Travels in Arabia. By comparing the characters of the inscriptions with the Himyaritic alphabets contained in some Arabic manuscripts and with the present Ethiopic alphabet, he was enabled to ascertain the powers of the letters, and even to interpret, with various degrees of certainty, many portions of the inscriptions themselves. Thus, these venerable records, which in all probability have for many ages been dumb to every human being, are in a fair way of being made to yield up to modern scientific research whatever information they may contain. That this information must be interesting and valuable to the historian is inferred from the imposing nature of the structures on which they are found, and whose existence but a few years ago was as little looked for in this part of the world as in the forest wilds of Oregon. A full account of these discoveries and of the attempts at decyphering the inscriptions was published in 1845 in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of this city. I will therefore merely proceed to state what has been accomplished in the matter since the time when that account closes.